Urmia University Forest Research and Development 2476-3551 11 2 2025 08 23 Assessment of soil permeability in an exploited area of natural mountain forest (case study: Shanderman Forest - Guilan Province) Assessment of soil permeability in an exploited area of natural mountain forest (case study: Shanderman Forest - Guilan Province) 149 164 121755 10.30466/jfrd.2025.55575.1738 FA Pejman Dalir Kouhi Ph.D. Graduate, Department of Forestry, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Guilan, Someh-Sara, Iran 0000-0001-7177-6461 Ramin Naghdi Professor, Department of Forestry, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Guilan, Someh-Sara, Iran 0000-0002-6671-0369 Haniye Alinejad Undergraduate Student, Department of Forestry, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Guilan, Someh-Sara, Iran Sanaz Jafari Haftkhani M.Sc. in Rangeland and Watershed Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Iran Journal Article 2024 09 16 Background and Objective: Forest harvesting, particularly through the use of heavy machinery, can disrupt soil balance and cause significant physical and chemical alterations. Skidding operations and logging activities often lead to increased bulk density, reduced porosity, and decreased soil permeability, which ultimately result in higher surface runoff, reduced soil moisture, and accelerated erosion. These changes may also negatively affect soil fertility and plant growth. Given the importance of soil permeability in maintaining forest ecosystem stability, this study aimed to assess the effects of logging activities on soil infiltration and selected physical properties across skid trails, log landings, felling sites, and a control area. Material and Methods: The research was conducted in 2019 in Parcel 7 of the Siyahkesh forests (Series 11) within the Shanderman watershed, which underwent large-scale clear-cutting between 1985 and 1993. Four treatments were examined: log landing, skid trail, felling site, and control (natural forest). In each treatment, three random sampling points were selected, and water infiltration tests were performed using a double-ring infiltrometer. Water column height was recorded at specified intervals until the infiltration rate decline stabilized below 10% over one hour. Soil samples (0–10 cm depth) were collected to determine bulk density, organic carbon content, and texture. Bulk density was measured using the clod method, organic carbon by the Walkley–Black method, and soil texture by Bouyoucos hydrometry. Data were processed in Excel 2016 and statistically analyzed in SPSS, while stepwise regression was used to identify variables influencing infiltration rates. Additionally, cumulative infiltration means were calculated for each treatment, and infiltration curves were drawn. Using PC-ORD 5, relationships between soil physical and chemical properties (organic carbon, bulk density, porosity, sand, silt, and clay content) and treatments were analyzed to evaluate spatial patterns and similarity responses. Results: Significant differences (p < 0.01) in soil texture were observed among treatments. The highest clay content (26.66%) occurred in the control area, while the lowest (8.57%) was recorded in skid trails. The mean organic carbon was highest in the control (4.06%) and lowest in skid trails (1.18%). Analysis of variance revealed significant differences in soil bulk density and porosity across treatments, with log landings exhibiting a significantly higher bulk density compared to the control (p < 0.05). Stepwise regression indicated that bulk density was the only variable significantly affecting infiltration rates (p = 0.00). The lowest cumulative infiltration (38.7 mm) occurred in log landings, while the highest (57 mm) was found in the control. Similarly, infiltration trends showed that log landings had the lowest mean infiltration rate (2.4 mm), whereas the control exhibited the highest (57 mm). Conclusion: The findings demonstrate that forest harvesting and machinery traffic substantially alter soil physical properties, particularly by reducing infiltration capacity. The most pronounced decline in soil permeability was observed in log landings and skid trails, mainly due to compaction from machinery movement and log pressure. In contrast, natural forest areas maintained the highest infiltration capacity, attributed to greater soil porosity. To mitigate these negative impacts, appropriate management practices such as restricting machinery traffic and adopting soil rehabilitation methods are recommended. Background and Objective: Forest harvesting, particularly through the use of heavy machinery, can disrupt soil balance and cause significant physical and chemical alterations. Skidding operations and logging activities often lead to increased bulk density, reduced porosity, and decreased soil permeability, which ultimately result in higher surface runoff, reduced soil moisture, and accelerated erosion. These changes may also negatively affect soil fertility and plant growth. Given the importance of soil permeability in maintaining forest ecosystem stability, this study aimed to assess the effects of logging activities on soil infiltration and selected physical properties across skid trails, log landings, felling sites, and a control area. Material and Methods: The research was conducted in 2019 in Parcel 7 of the Siyahkesh forests (Series 11) within the Shanderman watershed, which underwent large-scale clear-cutting between 1985 and 1993. Four treatments were examined: log landing, skid trail, felling site, and control (natural forest). In each treatment, three random sampling points were selected, and water infiltration tests were performed using a double-ring infiltrometer. Water column height was recorded at specified intervals until the infiltration rate decline stabilized below 10% over one hour. Soil samples (0–10 cm depth) were collected to determine bulk density, organic carbon content, and texture. Bulk density was measured using the clod method, organic carbon by the Walkley–Black method, and soil texture by Bouyoucos hydrometry. Data were processed in Excel 2016 and statistically analyzed in SPSS, while stepwise regression was used to identify variables influencing infiltration rates. Additionally, cumulative infiltration means were calculated for each treatment, and infiltration curves were drawn. Using PC-ORD 5, relationships between soil physical and chemical properties (organic carbon, bulk density, porosity, sand, silt, and clay content) and treatments were analyzed to evaluate spatial patterns and similarity responses. Results: Significant differences (p < 0.01) in soil texture were observed among treatments. The highest clay content (26.66%) occurred in the control area, while the lowest (8.57%) was recorded in skid trails. The mean organic carbon was highest in the control (4.06%) and lowest in skid trails (1.18%). Analysis of variance revealed significant differences in soil bulk density and porosity across treatments, with log landings exhibiting a significantly higher bulk density compared to the control (p < 0.05). Stepwise regression indicated that bulk density was the only variable significantly affecting infiltration rates (p = 0.00). The lowest cumulative infiltration (38.7 mm) occurred in log landings, while the highest (57 mm) was found in the control. Similarly, infiltration trends showed that log landings had the lowest mean infiltration rate (2.4 mm), whereas the control exhibited the highest (57 mm). Conclusion: The findings demonstrate that forest harvesting and machinery traffic substantially alter soil physical properties, particularly by reducing infiltration capacity. The most pronounced decline in soil permeability was observed in log landings and skid trails, mainly due to compaction from machinery movement and log pressure. In contrast, natural forest areas maintained the highest infiltration capacity, attributed to greater soil porosity. To mitigate these negative impacts, appropriate management practices such as restricting machinery traffic and adopting soil rehabilitation methods are recommended.

https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121755_086ac49185144d61ad8f9a186f63e445.pdf

Urmia University Forest Research and Development 2476-3551 11 2 2025 08 23 Spatial analysis of meteorological drought susceptibility with a forest and watershed monitoring approach in Kurdistan Province Spatial analysis of meteorological drought susceptibility with a forest and watershed monitoring approach in Kurdistan Province 165 181 121648 10.30466/jfrd.2025.55863.1748 FA Abdulaziz Hanifinia Ph.D. Student of Watershed Management, Faculty of Natural Resources, `Urmia University, Urmia, I. R. Iran Hirad Abghari Associate Professor, Department of Rangeland and Watershed Management, Faculty of Natural Resources, Urmia University, Urmia, I. R. Iran Khabat Khosravi Postdoctoral researcher, University of Prince Edward Island, Canada Journal Article 2025 01 06 Background and Objective: Meteorological drought, as one of the most catastrophic types of drought, has direct and indirect destructive impacts on society and can even influence the occurrence of other natural phenomena. Iran, due to its geographical position in the arid and semi-arid belt, is highly prone to drought, having experienced frequent and severe droughts in watersheds and forested areas over the past three decades. Accurate spatial prediction (identification of starting points) and temporal forecasting of potential drought damages at both global and national levels is highly challenging. However, in a general assessment, research has shown that damages caused by meteorological drought are more pronounced in forested areas compared to watersheds. Identifying influencing factors, measuring, predicting, and defining a natural hazard such as drought is often very difficult and impractical due to its complexity. Therefore, implementing adaptive measures tailored to the region requires the identification of key components, recognition of complex relationships, and a comprehensive understanding of influencing factors, along with the assessment of drought risks through the preparation of drought vulnerability and sensitivity maps. Material and Methods: The geographical location of Kurdistan Province is between 34°44′ and 36°30′ N latitude and 45°31′ to 48°16′ E longitude from the Greenwich meridian. A map of drought distribution points was prepared using the Drought Severity Index (DSI) in the Google Earth Engine environment. Natural, anthropogenic, and morphometric factors involved in drought occurrence were considered. The digital elevation model was downloaded from the USGS website and used to prepare information layers of elevation, slope, and morphometric indices. Layers of precipitation, temperature, evapotranspiration, and climate were prepared from data of rain gauge, synoptic, and climatological stations across the province and interpolated using the kriging method. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was extracted from Sentinel-2 imagery, and the soil map of Kurdistan Province was obtained from the FAO soil database. Information layers were prepared in ArcGIS and SAGA_GIS software. The drought sensitivity map was generated using a hybrid machine learning model (Bagging–Random Forest). The contribution of each factor to drought occurrence was evaluated using the permutation index, and the model performance was assessed with the ROC curve in the R programming environment. Results: The results of model evaluation using the ROC curve after preparing the drought sensitivity map with the Bagging–Random Forest method show that the model has excellent performance (AUC > 0.9) in identifying sensitive areas. The analysis of the percentage of areas with sensitivity and vulnerability within the study area indicated that about 60% of watersheds and forested areas in the province fall within the range of moderate to very high vulnerability. The results of the permutation analysis for the model in determining the factors influencing drought occurrence in Kurdistan Province revealed that climatic factors such as precipitation, temperature, climate, and evapotranspiration had the highest influence, whereas the NDVI and the mass balance index had the lowest impact. Conclusion: The results of the hybrid Bagging–Random Forest model for Kurdistan Province showed that highly drought-sensitive areas are mainly located in the eastern and partially southern parts of the province. Since most of the forested watersheds and valuable rangelands are situated in the western parts of the province, their sensitivity to drought is relatively lower compared to other regions. However, the evaluation of the model’s predictive map in western areas, which include high-quality forests and rangelands, indicated that forested watersheds are in a more critical condition than other watersheds. Therefore, priority in future planning should be given to these areas. Background and Objective: Meteorological drought, as one of the most catastrophic types of drought, has direct and indirect destructive impacts on society and can even influence the occurrence of other natural phenomena. Iran, due to its geographical position in the arid and semi-arid belt, is highly prone to drought, having experienced frequent and severe droughts in watersheds and forested areas over the past three decades. Accurate spatial prediction (identification of starting points) and temporal forecasting of potential drought damages at both global and national levels is highly challenging. However, in a general assessment, research has shown that damages caused by meteorological drought are more pronounced in forested areas compared to watersheds. Identifying influencing factors, measuring, predicting, and defining a natural hazard such as drought is often very difficult and impractical due to its complexity. Therefore, implementing adaptive measures tailored to the region requires the identification of key components, recognition of complex relationships, and a comprehensive understanding of influencing factors, along with the assessment of drought risks through the preparation of drought vulnerability and sensitivity maps. Material and Methods: The geographical location of Kurdistan Province is between 34°44′ and 36°30′ N latitude and 45°31′ to 48°16′ E longitude from the Greenwich meridian. A map of drought distribution points was prepared using the Drought Severity Index (DSI) in the Google Earth Engine environment. Natural, anthropogenic, and morphometric factors involved in drought occurrence were considered. The digital elevation model was downloaded from the USGS website and used to prepare information layers of elevation, slope, and morphometric indices. Layers of precipitation, temperature, evapotranspiration, and climate were prepared from data of rain gauge, synoptic, and climatological stations across the province and interpolated using the kriging method. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was extracted from Sentinel-2 imagery, and the soil map of Kurdistan Province was obtained from the FAO soil database. Information layers were prepared in ArcGIS and SAGA_GIS software. The drought sensitivity map was generated using a hybrid machine learning model (Bagging–Random Forest). The contribution of each factor to drought occurrence was evaluated using the permutation index, and the model performance was assessed with the ROC curve in the R programming environment. Results: The results of model evaluation using the ROC curve after preparing the drought sensitivity map with the Bagging–Random Forest method show that the model has excellent performance (AUC > 0.9) in identifying sensitive areas. The analysis of the percentage of areas with sensitivity and vulnerability within the study area indicated that about 60% of watersheds and forested areas in the province fall within the range of moderate to very high vulnerability. The results of the permutation analysis for the model in determining the factors influencing drought occurrence in Kurdistan Province revealed that climatic factors such as precipitation, temperature, climate, and evapotranspiration had the highest influence, whereas the NDVI and the mass balance index had the lowest impact. Conclusion: The results of the hybrid Bagging–Random Forest model for Kurdistan Province showed that highly drought-sensitive areas are mainly located in the eastern and partially southern parts of the province. Since most of the forested watersheds and valuable rangelands are situated in the western parts of the province, their sensitivity to drought is relatively lower compared to other regions. However, the evaluation of the model’s predictive map in western areas, which include high-quality forests and rangelands, indicated that forested watersheds are in a more critical condition than other watersheds. Therefore, priority in future planning should be given to these areas.

https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121648_e98ae85530488b0d455fadf548dfd317.pdf

Urmia University Forest Research and Development 2476-3551 11 2 2025 08 23 Selection of high-yielding cell line and establishment of high Taxol-producing cell suspension culture in European yew tree (Taxus baccata L.) Selection of high-yielding cell line and establishment of high Taxol-producing cell suspension culture in European yew tree (Taxus baccata L.) 183 204 121756 10.30466/jfrd.2025.55868.1749 FA Aida Javanmard PhD Student of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering, Department of Genetics and Plant Production, Faculty of Agriculture, Urmia University, Urmia, I. R. Iran Morad Jafari Associate Professor, Department of Genetics and Plant Production, Faculty of Agriculture, Urmia University, Urmia, I. R. Iran 0000-0002-9863-9640 Journal Article 2025 01 07 Background and Objective: European yew (Taxus baccata L.) is a slow-growing, evergreen conifer native to northern Iran with high medicinal value due to its production of paclitaxel (Taxol), a vital anticancer drug. However, the extremely low concentration of paclitaxel in yew tissues (0.001–0.02% of dry weight) poses a major barrier to sustainable exploitation. Producing just one kilogram of paclitaxel requires about 10,000 kg of bark or the felling of 3,000 trees, while treating a single cancer patient needs approximately 3 g of paclitaxel—equivalent to eight 60-year-old trees. Such demand threatens the survival of natural yew forests. Consequently, biotechnologists seek alternative strategies, such as cell and tissue culture, for large-scale production of secondary metabolites without environmental damage. Cell suspension culture is considered an effective approach for producing medicinal metabolites under controlled laboratory conditions. Establishing high-yield, selected cell lines can significantly enhance biomass and paclitaxel production. This study aimed to develop efficient paclitaxel-producing suspension cultures of T. baccata by selecting high-yield cell lines through small cell aggregate cloning. Material and Methods: Stem explants from one-year-old yew seedlings were cultured on B5 medium supplemented with various auxins (2,4-D, PIC, NAA) and cytokinins (BAP, KIN) to induce callus formation. Successful induction and optimal phytohormone combinations were determined based on induction time, callus morphology (texture and color), and callogenic response. Selected calli were used to establish primary cell suspension cultures. High-yield cell lines were isolated by cloning small cell aggregates. Resulting suspension cultures from selected lines were analyzed for growth kinetics, paclitaxel accumulation, growth stability, and metabolite production. All experiments were conducted in a completely randomized design with three replicates, repeated twice, and analyzed using SAS 9.4. Results: Phytohormones significantly influenced callogenesis, with PIC and KIN producing friable, fast-growing callus. Four single-cell-derived clones with superior growth performance were selected from T. baccata suspension cultures. Growth profiling revealed an exponential phase up to day 21, followed by a stationary phase until day 28. Paclitaxel production peaked at the late exponential phase (day 21), coinciding with maximum cell growth. The best-performing line produced the highest paclitaxel yield (26.07 mg/L) and biomass (33.68 g DW/L), about 15-fold and 2.05-fold higher, respectively, than the low-yield line. Cell population dynamics indicated that the superior line predominantly consisted of spherical cell aggregates with rapid division rates and high viability. Stability analysis showed significant differences among lines across subcultures, with only line TbCL-J1 maintaining high productivity and stability in biomass and paclitaxel yield after five successive subcultures. Conclusion: This study successfully established a high-yield cell line and developed efficient T. baccata cell suspension cultures for paclitaxel production. Paclitaxel yield in the selected line (0.77% of dry biomass) was dramatically higher than that reported for natural yew trees (0.001–0.02%). The cell line selection strategy not only boosted paclitaxel yield but also enhanced biomass accumulation. The small-aggregate cloning method offers potential for application in other plant culture systems. Moreover, the homogeneous cultures derived from single-cell selection in T. baccata proliferate more rapidly than wild trees, making them suitable for scale-up, metabolic engineering, and industrial bioreactor applications—without destructive harvesting of Iran’s native forests. Background and Objective: European yew (Taxus baccata L.) is a slow-growing, evergreen conifer native to northern Iran with high medicinal value due to its production of paclitaxel (Taxol), a vital anticancer drug. However, the extremely low concentration of paclitaxel in yew tissues (0.001–0.02% of dry weight) poses a major barrier to sustainable exploitation. Producing just one kilogram of paclitaxel requires about 10,000 kg of bark or the felling of 3,000 trees, while treating a single cancer patient needs approximately 3 g of paclitaxel—equivalent to eight 60-year-old trees. Such demand threatens the survival of natural yew forests. Consequently, biotechnologists seek alternative strategies, such as cell and tissue culture, for large-scale production of secondary metabolites without environmental damage. Cell suspension culture is considered an effective approach for producing medicinal metabolites under controlled laboratory conditions. Establishing high-yield, selected cell lines can significantly enhance biomass and paclitaxel production. This study aimed to develop efficient paclitaxel-producing suspension cultures of T. baccata by selecting high-yield cell lines through small cell aggregate cloning. Material and Methods: Stem explants from one-year-old yew seedlings were cultured on B5 medium supplemented with various auxins (2,4-D, PIC, NAA) and cytokinins (BAP, KIN) to induce callus formation. Successful induction and optimal phytohormone combinations were determined based on induction time, callus morphology (texture and color), and callogenic response. Selected calli were used to establish primary cell suspension cultures. High-yield cell lines were isolated by cloning small cell aggregates. Resulting suspension cultures from selected lines were analyzed for growth kinetics, paclitaxel accumulation, growth stability, and metabolite production. All experiments were conducted in a completely randomized design with three replicates, repeated twice, and analyzed using SAS 9.4. Results: Phytohormones significantly influenced callogenesis, with PIC and KIN producing friable, fast-growing callus. Four single-cell-derived clones with superior growth performance were selected from T. baccata suspension cultures. Growth profiling revealed an exponential phase up to day 21, followed by a stationary phase until day 28. Paclitaxel production peaked at the late exponential phase (day 21), coinciding with maximum cell growth. The best-performing line produced the highest paclitaxel yield (26.07 mg/L) and biomass (33.68 g DW/L), about 15-fold and 2.05-fold higher, respectively, than the low-yield line. Cell population dynamics indicated that the superior line predominantly consisted of spherical cell aggregates with rapid division rates and high viability. Stability analysis showed significant differences among lines across subcultures, with only line TbCL-J1 maintaining high productivity and stability in biomass and paclitaxel yield after five successive subcultures. Conclusion: This study successfully established a high-yield cell line and developed efficient T. baccata cell suspension cultures for paclitaxel production. Paclitaxel yield in the selected line (0.77% of dry biomass) was dramatically higher than that reported for natural yew trees (0.001–0.02%). The cell line selection strategy not only boosted paclitaxel yield but also enhanced biomass accumulation. The small-aggregate cloning method offers potential for application in other plant culture systems. Moreover, the homogeneous cultures derived from single-cell selection in T. baccata proliferate more rapidly than wild trees, making them suitable for scale-up, metabolic engineering, and industrial bioreactor applications—without destructive harvesting of Iran’s native forests.

https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121756_76e0c8cb4b6dd7c43ea8d874f3d36728.pdf

Urmia University Forest Research and Development 2476-3551 11 2 2025 08 23 The effect of skid trail designs on the recovery of soil physical properties The effect of skid trail designs on the recovery of soil physical properties 205 222 121758 10.30466/jfrd.2025.55964.1754 FA Ali Ghanji Vatan MSc Student of Forestry, Department of Forestry, Faculty of Forest Sciences, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, I. R. Iran Sattar Ezzati Assistant Professor, Department of Forestry, Faculty of Forest Sciences, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, I. R. Iran 0000-0001-8722-1348 Farzam Tavankar Associate Professor, Department of Forestry, Khalkhal Branch, Islamic Azad University, Khalkhal, I. R. Iran Ramin Rahmani Professor, Department of Forestry, Faculty of Forest Sciences, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, I. R. Iran Journal Article 2025 02 15 Background and Objective: Skid trail design, or the secondary forest road network, is usually carried out prior to tree-felling operations, with an emphasis on creating straight alignments that minimize damage to standing trees. However, in mountainous and steep forest terrains, skid trails often include numerous bends and curves due to topographic constraints. This significantly increases damage to residual trees along the trail margins, forest regeneration, soil properties, and their long-term recovery. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of skid trail design type, straight versus curved, on the recovery of degraded soil physical properties in abandoned skid trails after 15- and 30-years following ground-based logging operations. Material and Methods: The study was conducted in the Kouhmiyan Forest District, Azadshahr, Golestan Province. Soil physical properties including bulk density, moisture content, macroporosity, total porosity, and penetration resistance were measured from abandoned skid trails. Two trails with ages of 15 and 30 years since logging were selected from adjacent compartments. Within each trail, two design types (straight and curved) and three traffic intensities (low, medium, and high) were distinguished. For each treatment, a 40 m² sample plot was established, subdivided into transects, and random soil samples were collected. Bulk density was measured at 0–10 cm depth using metal cylinders. In total, 90 soil samples were collected and compared with undisturbed control soils. Results: Results showed that with increasing traffic intensity, both bulk density and penetration resistance increased. After 15 years, bulk density in heavily trafficked trails remained 27% higher and penetration resistance 116% higher than the control soils, while after 30 years these values not only failed to fully recover but exceeded control levels by 14% and 53%, respectively. After 15 years, soil moisture was 30% lower, macroporosity 24% lower, and total porosity 16% lower than the control. By year 30, soil moisture was 7% higher, while macroporosity and total porosity remained 18% and 12% lower than the control. Partial recovery of porosity, moisture, and bulk density was observed under low and medium traffic after 15 years; however, penetration resistance showed no recovery in any treatment and requires more than 30 years for full restoration. Straight trails caused less soil degradation compared to curved ones. In 15-year-old straight trails, bulk density was 9% higher, penetration resistance 56% higher, while macroporosity, total porosity, and moisture were 16%, 11%, and 19% lower than control soils. In contrast, in 30-year-old curved trails, bulk density and penetration resistance remained 6% and 88% higher than controls, while macroporosity and total porosity were still 12% and 3% lower with soil moisture 7% higher. Conclusion: To minimize soil degradation and enhance long-term recovery of soil physical properties, protective measures such as using straight skid trails and applying slash in high-traffic areas are recommended. Careful design of permanent and straight skid trails is essential to reduce soil damage, while restorative practices such as surface scarification and spreading logging residues can help mitigate impacts and accelerate recovery of soil physical properties on skid trails. Background and Objective: Skid trail design, or the secondary forest road network, is usually carried out prior to tree-felling operations, with an emphasis on creating straight alignments that minimize damage to standing trees. However, in mountainous and steep forest terrains, skid trails often include numerous bends and curves due to topographic constraints. This significantly increases damage to residual trees along the trail margins, forest regeneration, soil properties, and their long-term recovery. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of skid trail design type, straight versus curved, on the recovery of degraded soil physical properties in abandoned skid trails after 15- and 30-years following ground-based logging operations. Material and Methods: The study was conducted in the Kouhmiyan Forest District, Azadshahr, Golestan Province. Soil physical properties including bulk density, moisture content, macroporosity, total porosity, and penetration resistance were measured from abandoned skid trails. Two trails with ages of 15 and 30 years since logging were selected from adjacent compartments. Within each trail, two design types (straight and curved) and three traffic intensities (low, medium, and high) were distinguished. For each treatment, a 40 m² sample plot was established, subdivided into transects, and random soil samples were collected. Bulk density was measured at 0–10 cm depth using metal cylinders. In total, 90 soil samples were collected and compared with undisturbed control soils. Results: Results showed that with increasing traffic intensity, both bulk density and penetration resistance increased. After 15 years, bulk density in heavily trafficked trails remained 27% higher and penetration resistance 116% higher than the control soils, while after 30 years these values not only failed to fully recover but exceeded control levels by 14% and 53%, respectively. After 15 years, soil moisture was 30% lower, macroporosity 24% lower, and total porosity 16% lower than the control. By year 30, soil moisture was 7% higher, while macroporosity and total porosity remained 18% and 12% lower than the control. Partial recovery of porosity, moisture, and bulk density was observed under low and medium traffic after 15 years; however, penetration resistance showed no recovery in any treatment and requires more than 30 years for full restoration. Straight trails caused less soil degradation compared to curved ones. In 15-year-old straight trails, bulk density was 9% higher, penetration resistance 56% higher, while macroporosity, total porosity, and moisture were 16%, 11%, and 19% lower than control soils. In contrast, in 30-year-old curved trails, bulk density and penetration resistance remained 6% and 88% higher than controls, while macroporosity and total porosity were still 12% and 3% lower with soil moisture 7% higher. Conclusion: To minimize soil degradation and enhance long-term recovery of soil physical properties, protective measures such as using straight skid trails and applying slash in high-traffic areas are recommended. Careful design of permanent and straight skid trails is essential to reduce soil damage, while restorative practices such as surface scarification and spreading logging residues can help mitigate impacts and accelerate recovery of soil physical properties on skid trails.

https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121758_10f0cca4c2d4c19e84b0b8b2426ab5e6.pdf

Urmia University Forest Research and Development 2476-3551 11 2 2025 08 23 The effect of changes in longitude, latitude and altitude above sea level on Iranian oak seed size The effect of changes in longitude, latitude and altitude above sea level on Iranian oak seed size 223 248 121747 10.30466/jfrd.2024.55316.1725 FA Khaled Karimi Hajii Pamogh PhD Student, Department of Forest Science and Engineering, Faculty of Natural Resources, Urmia University, Iran 0000-0003-4513-5227 Nasrin Seyedi Associate Professor, Department of Forest Science and Engineering, Faculty of Natural Resources, Urmia University, Iran 0000-0003-4999-7879 Rahele Ghasemzade Assistant Professor, Department of Plant Production and Genetics Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Urmia University, Iran Abbas Banj Shafiei Professor, Department of Forest Science and Engineering, Faculty of Natural Resources, Urmia University, Iran 0000-0002-0889-3398 َََAyda Taheri PhD of Forestry, Department of Forest Science and Engineering, Faculty of Natural Resources, Urmia University, Iran 0000-0002-9708-134X Journal Article 2024 04 23 Background and Objective: Natural regeneration is superior due to the production of higher-quality seedlings, and it is strongly influenced by seed size, which affects seedling growth, establishment, and survival. Seed size represents an important strategy for the competitive ability of forest stands in the environment. Understanding seed size characteristics in the Zagros forests can lead to better management, conservation, and sustainability of these ecosystems. In the Zagros forests, three major oak species are found: Persian oak (Quercus brantii), gall oak (Q. infectoria), and Lebanon oak (Q. libani), among which Persian oak is the most widespread. Given the ecological importance of Persian oak, further research on this species is of high priority. Therefore, identifying the relationship between seed size and geographical latitude, altitude, as well as the trends of seed size variation along these gradients, is essential. Material and Methods: To this end, seeds were collected from four provenances of Persian oak in the Zagros region (Baneh, Chavar–Ilam, Chekani–Khorramabad, and Sisakht–Yasuj), representing different latitudes and altitudes. In each provenance, 12 trees with similar diameters (30–40 cm) and approximately 100 m apart (to minimize genetic relatedness) were randomly selected along transects. The geographic coordinates of sampled trees were recorded using GPS. About one kilogram of mature acorns was randomly collected from all crown directions of each tree in early December 2022. For 20 seeds per tree, the following traits were measured: seed length, hilum diameter, seed diameter, seed diameter at 8 mm from the tip, length-to-diameter ratio, seed perimeter, perimeter-to-diameter ratio, perimeter-to-length ratio, seed content density, density-to-length ratio, and density-to-diameter ratio. Data normality was tested with the one-sample Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. Morphological traits among provenances and the effects of different factors were analyzed using one-way ANOVA and Duncan’s test (at the 0.05 level). Discriminant function analysis was applied to distinguish among provenances and elevation classes based on seed traits, and functions were tested using Wilks’ Lambda and Chi-square statistics. Results: Results indicated that with decreasing latitude, seed length and length-to-diameter ratio increased, while diameter, seed content density per length, hilum diameter, and tip diameter decreased. Discriminant function analysis (first and second functions explaining 88% of variance) showed that Baneh had the highest positive distinction (2.956) and Chekani–Khorramabad the strongest negative distinction (–0.998) in the first function. In the second function, Chavar–Ilam showed the highest positive distinction (0.905) while Sisakht had the strongest negative (–0.575). In the third function, Chekani–Khorramabad had the highest positive score (0.781) and Sisakht–Yasuj the strongest negative. Elevation classes also showed significant differences: low elevation (1000–1260 m) had the highest values for seed length, longitudinal perimeter, length-to-diameter ratio, and perimeter-to-diameter ratio. Mid elevation (1260–1540 m) showed the highest values for area, seed content density, longitudinal cross-sectional area, and density-to-length and density-to-diameter ratios. Discriminant function analysis for elevation classes (two functions explaining 85.9% of variance) revealed that mid elevation (1260–1540 m) had the strongest positive performance (0.643) while 1540–1800 m had the strongest negative (–1.259) in the first function. In the second function, mid elevation again had the highest positive (0.561) while high elevation (1800–2100 m) showed the strongest negative (–0.463). In the third function, low elevation had the highest positive (0.253) while high elevation had the strongest negative. Conclusion: The findings indicate that northern provenances and lower elevations produce larger seeds with higher content. Due to their greater width (diameter) and lower length-to-diameter ratio, these seeds are expected to generate more vigorous seedlings for afforestation. However, such variation in seed size across provenances and elevations may represent genetic and ecological adaptation to local habitats and natural seed predators, serving as a site-specific survival strategy. Background and Objective: Natural regeneration is superior due to the production of higher-quality seedlings, and it is strongly influenced by seed size, which affects seedling growth, establishment, and survival. Seed size represents an important strategy for the competitive ability of forest stands in the environment. Understanding seed size characteristics in the Zagros forests can lead to better management, conservation, and sustainability of these ecosystems. In the Zagros forests, three major oak species are found: Persian oak (Quercus brantii), gall oak (Q. infectoria), and Lebanon oak (Q. libani), among which Persian oak is the most widespread. Given the ecological importance of Persian oak, further research on this species is of high priority. Therefore, identifying the relationship between seed size and geographical latitude, altitude, as well as the trends of seed size variation along these gradients, is essential. Material and Methods: To this end, seeds were collected from four provenances of Persian oak in the Zagros region (Baneh, Chavar–Ilam, Chekani–Khorramabad, and Sisakht–Yasuj), representing different latitudes and altitudes. In each provenance, 12 trees with similar diameters (30–40 cm) and approximately 100 m apart (to minimize genetic relatedness) were randomly selected along transects. The geographic coordinates of sampled trees were recorded using GPS. About one kilogram of mature acorns was randomly collected from all crown directions of each tree in early December 2022. For 20 seeds per tree, the following traits were measured: seed length, hilum diameter, seed diameter, seed diameter at 8 mm from the tip, length-to-diameter ratio, seed perimeter, perimeter-to-diameter ratio, perimeter-to-length ratio, seed content density, density-to-length ratio, and density-to-diameter ratio. Data normality was tested with the one-sample Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. Morphological traits among provenances and the effects of different factors were analyzed using one-way ANOVA and Duncan’s test (at the 0.05 level). Discriminant function analysis was applied to distinguish among provenances and elevation classes based on seed traits, and functions were tested using Wilks’ Lambda and Chi-square statistics. Results: Results indicated that with decreasing latitude, seed length and length-to-diameter ratio increased, while diameter, seed content density per length, hilum diameter, and tip diameter decreased. Discriminant function analysis (first and second functions explaining 88% of variance) showed that Baneh had the highest positive distinction (2.956) and Chekani–Khorramabad the strongest negative distinction (–0.998) in the first function. In the second function, Chavar–Ilam showed the highest positive distinction (0.905) while Sisakht had the strongest negative (–0.575). In the third function, Chekani–Khorramabad had the highest positive score (0.781) and Sisakht–Yasuj the strongest negative. Elevation classes also showed significant differences: low elevation (1000–1260 m) had the highest values for seed length, longitudinal perimeter, length-to-diameter ratio, and perimeter-to-diameter ratio. Mid elevation (1260–1540 m) showed the highest values for area, seed content density, longitudinal cross-sectional area, and density-to-length and density-to-diameter ratios. Discriminant function analysis for elevation classes (two functions explaining 85.9% of variance) revealed that mid elevation (1260–1540 m) had the strongest positive performance (0.643) while 1540–1800 m had the strongest negative (–1.259) in the first function. In the second function, mid elevation again had the highest positive (0.561) while high elevation (1800–2100 m) showed the strongest negative (–0.463). In the third function, low elevation had the highest positive (0.253) while high elevation had the strongest negative. Conclusion: The findings indicate that northern provenances and lower elevations produce larger seeds with higher content. Due to their greater width (diameter) and lower length-to-diameter ratio, these seeds are expected to generate more vigorous seedlings for afforestation. However, such variation in seed size across provenances and elevations may represent genetic and ecological adaptation to local habitats and natural seed predators, serving as a site-specific survival strategy.

https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121747_33e210d31e6b68c9acbe2b9b05d05125.pdf

Urmia University Forest Research and Development 2476-3551 11 2 2025 08 23 The effect of using agricultural waste ash on improving the mechanical properties of forest roadbed soil The effect of using agricultural waste ash on improving the mechanical properties of forest roadbed soil 249 265 121757 10.30466/jfrd.2025.55946.1752 FA Seyed Amir Reza Jaddi Hosseini MSc. Student, Department of Forestry, Faculty of Forest Science, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Gorgan, I.R. Iran Aidin Parsakhoo Associate Professor, Department of Forestry, Faculty of Forest Sciences, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Gorgan, I.R. Iran Sattar Ezzati Assistant Professor, Department of Forestry, Faculty of Forest Sciences, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Gorgan, I.R. Iran 0000-0001-8722-1348 Aiub Rezaei Motlagh Research Expert (Ph.D. of forest management), Forest Research Division, Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands, AREEO, Tehran, I.R. Iran Journal Article 2025 02 05 Background and Objective: Forest road subgrade soils in certain areas often face challenges such as high plasticity, low load-bearing capacity and shear strength, compaction difficulties, and settlement risks. Therefore, soil stabilization and strength improvement through additives have always been of interest to researchers and road engineers. At the same time, the agricultural industry struggles with the increasing volume of waste and by-products from production processes. Many of these residues, due to their mineral composition, possess favorable mechanical properties, making them potential substitutes for traditional soil stabilizers such as lime and cement. Moreover, the structural characteristics of organic materials can contribute to environmental preservation and the biological improvement of unstable and expansive soils. Material and Methods: In this study, agricultural by-products of walnut and peanut shells were used to reinforce the subgrade soils of forest roads in the Shast Kalateh forest management plan. The soil samples, collected from unstable landslide-prone zones containing expansive clay soils, were obtained from five landslide sites along forest roads. From each site, at least three samples weighing 5 kg each were randomly collected, yielding a total of 15 samples (75 kg). The hard shells of walnuts and peanuts were ground into powder using a professional grinder and then burned in a furnace at 580 °C for two hours to produce ash. Clay soil samples with high plasticity (CH) were mixed with walnut and peanut shell ash in proportions of 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20% (ash size 0.04–0.4 mm). The curing period was set at 28 days. Compaction characteristics, Atterberg limits, load-bearing capacity (CBR), and unconfined compressive strength were then evaluated using Proctor, Casagrande, plastic thread, and CBR tests. Statistical analyses were conducted as a factorial experiment with three factors (waste type at two levels, waste content at five levels, and 10 treatments in total) using SPSS software. Results: Findings revealed that all treatments increased the CBR values by 2 to 2.5 times; however, none were able to elevate the soil’s load-bearing capacity from “poor” to a higher category. The lowest CBR was recorded in soils treated with 3% peanut shell ash, while the highest plasticity index (PI) was observed in the control and soils treated with 10–15% walnut shell ash. Conversely, the lowest PI was recorded in soils treated with 3% peanut shell ash. Overall, soils treated with peanut shell ash exhibited significantly lower PI values than those treated with walnut shell ash. Due to the high plasticity of the native soil, treatments showed limited effectiveness in improving load-bearing capacity. Thus, their independent use for CH soil mechanical improvement is not recommended, but their potential in combination with additives like lime and cement could be considered. Conclusion: Higher percentages of walnut shell ash (10–15%) did not effectively reduce soil plasticity, likely due to its stronger affinity for water. In contrast, peanut shell ash at 3% by weight showed promising results in reducing soil plasticity, suggesting its suitability for stabilizing landslide-prone slopes without load-bearing requirements. Overall, while the tested treatments demonstrated limited capacity to enhance load-bearing properties of CH soils, their combined use with lime or cement could be a promising approach for further evaluation. Background and Objective: Forest road subgrade soils in certain areas often face challenges such as high plasticity, low load-bearing capacity and shear strength, compaction difficulties, and settlement risks. Therefore, soil stabilization and strength improvement through additives have always been of interest to researchers and road engineers. At the same time, the agricultural industry struggles with the increasing volume of waste and by-products from production processes. Many of these residues, due to their mineral composition, possess favorable mechanical properties, making them potential substitutes for traditional soil stabilizers such as lime and cement. Moreover, the structural characteristics of organic materials can contribute to environmental preservation and the biological improvement of unstable and expansive soils. Material and Methods: In this study, agricultural by-products of walnut and peanut shells were used to reinforce the subgrade soils of forest roads in the Shast Kalateh forest management plan. The soil samples, collected from unstable landslide-prone zones containing expansive clay soils, were obtained from five landslide sites along forest roads. From each site, at least three samples weighing 5 kg each were randomly collected, yielding a total of 15 samples (75 kg). The hard shells of walnuts and peanuts were ground into powder using a professional grinder and then burned in a furnace at 580 °C for two hours to produce ash. Clay soil samples with high plasticity (CH) were mixed with walnut and peanut shell ash in proportions of 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20% (ash size 0.04–0.4 mm). The curing period was set at 28 days. Compaction characteristics, Atterberg limits, load-bearing capacity (CBR), and unconfined compressive strength were then evaluated using Proctor, Casagrande, plastic thread, and CBR tests. Statistical analyses were conducted as a factorial experiment with three factors (waste type at two levels, waste content at five levels, and 10 treatments in total) using SPSS software. Results: Findings revealed that all treatments increased the CBR values by 2 to 2.5 times; however, none were able to elevate the soil’s load-bearing capacity from “poor” to a higher category. The lowest CBR was recorded in soils treated with 3% peanut shell ash, while the highest plasticity index (PI) was observed in the control and soils treated with 10–15% walnut shell ash. Conversely, the lowest PI was recorded in soils treated with 3% peanut shell ash. Overall, soils treated with peanut shell ash exhibited significantly lower PI values than those treated with walnut shell ash. Due to the high plasticity of the native soil, treatments showed limited effectiveness in improving load-bearing capacity. Thus, their independent use for CH soil mechanical improvement is not recommended, but their potential in combination with additives like lime and cement could be considered. Conclusion: Higher percentages of walnut shell ash (10–15%) did not effectively reduce soil plasticity, likely due to its stronger affinity for water. In contrast, peanut shell ash at 3% by weight showed promising results in reducing soil plasticity, suggesting its suitability for stabilizing landslide-prone slopes without load-bearing requirements. Overall, while the tested treatments demonstrated limited capacity to enhance load-bearing properties of CH soils, their combined use with lime or cement could be a promising approach for further evaluation.

https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121757_fac858d083b4ed77b2707c1c4ecd318e.pdf

Urmia University Forest Research and Development 2476-3551 11 2 2025 08 23 A Comprehensive Assessment of the Economic, Social, Environmental, and ‎Management Impacts of Nature-Based Tourism Development in West Azerbaijan ‎Province A Comprehensive Assessment of the Economic, Social, Environmental, and ‎Management Impacts of Nature-Based Tourism Development in West Azerbaijan ‎Province 267 294 121657 10.30466/jfrd.2025.55877.1750 FA Salar Taram Ph.D. student of Forest Science and Engineering, Faculty of Natural Resources, Urmia University, Urmia, ‎I.R. Iran.‎ Omid Hossein Zadeh Associate Professor, Department of Forestry, Faculty of Natural Resources, Urmia University, Urmia, I. R. Iran 0000-0002-1415-644X Marzieh Hajjarian Associate Professor, Department of Forestry, Faculty of Natural Resources, Urmia University, Urmia, I. R. Iran Seyed Rostam Mousavi Mirkala Associate Professor, Department of Forestry, Faculty of Natural Resources, Urmia University, Urmia, I. R. Iran Journal Article 2025 01 08 Introduction and purpose‏:‏‎ Nature-based tourism, as one of the core components of sustainable ‎development, plays a crucial role in environmental conservation and improving the livelihoods of ‎local communities. This type of tourism is designed to promote the responsible utilization of natural ‎resources, preserve biodiversity, and empower local communities. West Azerbaijan Province, with ‎its rich biodiversity, numerous natural attractions, and unique cultural heritage, is considered one of ‎the most promising regions for developing nature-based tourism in Iran. However, the development ‎of tourism in this area faces challenges such as pressure on natural resources, inadequate ‎infrastructure, and the absence of sustainable planning. The primary objective of this study is to ‎conduct a comprehensive analysis of the economic, social, environmental, and managerial impacts ‎of nature-based tourism development in the province and to propose sustainable strategies for ‎enhancing the tourism value chain.‎ Materials and Methods: This applied research was conducted using a survey-based approach. ‎Initially, the sustainability indicators for nature-based tourism were identified through a review of ‎the literature and expert opinions. The Delphi method was then employed to validate these ‎indicators, and the Best-Worst Method (BWM) was used to weigh and prioritize them. Data were ‎collected through questionnaires and interviews with three groups: academic experts, executive ‎managers, and local stakeholders. The study examined the impacts of nature-based tourism ‎development across four main dimensions: benefits, opportunities, costs, and risks. Pairwise ‎comparisons were utilized for weighting the criteria, and relevant software was used to analyze the ‎data.‎ Findings: The results revealed eight economic benefits, six social benefits, six environmental ‎benefits, and nine managerial benefits of nature-based tourism. In the economic dimension, job ‎creation (weight: 0.186) and improvement of local livelihoods (weight: 0.168) were identified as ‎the most significant. In the social dimension, reducing rural migration (weight: 0.316) and ‎strengthening local culture and identity (weight: 0.108) were the most and least important, ‎respectively. In the environmental dimension, reducing pressure on natural resources (weight: ‎‎0.276) and increasing financial resources for conservation (weight: 0.215) were the most crucial ‎factors. In the managerial dimension, enhancing competitiveness against other ecotourism ‎destinations (weight: 0.155) and strengthening regional identity and rural branding (weight: ‎‎0.061) held the highest and lowest significance, respectively. Four economic opportunities, four ‎social opportunities, five environmental opportunities, and seven managerial opportunities were ‎identified. Diversifying the local economy and reducing dependence on natural resources (weight: ‎‎0.313) was the most significant economic opportunity, while empowering and socially engaging ‎local communities (weight: 0.435) ranked highest in the social dimension. In the environmental ‎dimension, strengthening local participation in resource conservation (weight: 0.284) was the ‎most critical, whereas improving sustainable management and planning of ecotourism areas ‎‎(weight: 0.199) received the highest priority in the managerial dimension. The study also examined ‎economic, social, environmental, and managerial costs. In the economic dimension, high ‎infrastructure costs for establishment (weight: 0.210) and endangerment of production and ‎agricultural jobs (weight: 0.111) were the most and least significant costs, respectively. In the ‎social dimension, increased pressure on public services (weight: 0.475) was the most significant ‎cost. In the environmental dimension, land-use changes (weight: 0.398) and noise pollution ‎‎(weight: 0.098) were the most and least significant, respectively. In the managerial dimension, high ‎initial investment requirements (weight: 0.177) and training and development costs for employees ‎‎(weight: 0.069) had the lowest significance. In terms of risks, failure to attract large-scale ‎investors (weight: 0.267) was the most significant economic risk, while creating stress and ‎pressure exceeding the area’s carrying capacity (weight: 0.434) was the highest social risk. Forest ‎fire hazards (weight: 0.203) ranked highest in the environmental dimension, and the risk of ‎cooperation failure due to conflicts of interest (weight: 0.327) was the most significant managerial ‎risk. Conversely, the risk of reduced destination appeals due to rapid and unplanned ‎development (weight: 0.055) was identified as the least significant among all risks.‎ Conclusion: The findings of this study highlight that nature-based tourism in West Azerbaijan ‎Province can offer numerous benefits, including job creation, improved local livelihoods, reduced ‎pressure on natural resources, and strengthened cultural identity. However, challenges such as high ‎infrastructure costs, increased pressure on public services, and managerial risks also exist. Achieving ‎sustainable management of the nature-based tourism value chain requires collaboration among ‎governments, local communities, and the private sector. To achieve sustainable development, the ‎study recommends improving tourism infrastructure, implementing comprehensive and targeted ‎planning, and engaging in effective destination branding to attract international tourists. Moreover, ‎empowering local communities and actively involving them in natural resource management are of ‎paramount importance. These findings provide a solid foundation for policymakers to develop and ‎implement sustainable tourism strategies in similar regions.‎‏ ‏West Azerbaijan requires coordination ‎between the government, local communities, and the private sector. It is suggested that potential ‎problems be prevented by improving infrastructure, destination branding, and monitoring the ‎development of nature tourism. The results of this research can help in more precise planning to ‎achieve sustainable development in this sector.‎ Introduction and purpose‏:‏‎ Nature-based tourism, as one of the core components of sustainable ‎development, plays a crucial role in environmental conservation and improving the livelihoods of ‎local communities. This type of tourism is designed to promote the responsible utilization of natural ‎resources, preserve biodiversity, and empower local communities. West Azerbaijan Province, with ‎its rich biodiversity, numerous natural attractions, and unique cultural heritage, is considered one of ‎the most promising regions for developing nature-based tourism in Iran. However, the development ‎of tourism in this area faces challenges such as pressure on natural resources, inadequate ‎infrastructure, and the absence of sustainable planning. The primary objective of this study is to ‎conduct a comprehensive analysis of the economic, social, environmental, and managerial impacts ‎of nature-based tourism development in the province and to propose sustainable strategies for ‎enhancing the tourism value chain.‎ Materials and Methods: This applied research was conducted using a survey-based approach. ‎Initially, the sustainability indicators for nature-based tourism were identified through a review of ‎the literature and expert opinions. The Delphi method was then employed to validate these ‎indicators, and the Best-Worst Method (BWM) was used to weigh and prioritize them. Data were ‎collected through questionnaires and interviews with three groups: academic experts, executive ‎managers, and local stakeholders. The study examined the impacts of nature-based tourism ‎development across four main dimensions: benefits, opportunities, costs, and risks. Pairwise ‎comparisons were utilized for weighting the criteria, and relevant software was used to analyze the ‎data.‎ Findings: The results revealed eight economic benefits, six social benefits, six environmental ‎benefits, and nine managerial benefits of nature-based tourism. In the economic dimension, job ‎creation (weight: 0.186) and improvement of local livelihoods (weight: 0.168) were identified as ‎the most significant. In the social dimension, reducing rural migration (weight: 0.316) and ‎strengthening local culture and identity (weight: 0.108) were the most and least important, ‎respectively. In the environmental dimension, reducing pressure on natural resources (weight: ‎‎0.276) and increasing financial resources for conservation (weight: 0.215) were the most crucial ‎factors. In the managerial dimension, enhancing competitiveness against other ecotourism ‎destinations (weight: 0.155) and strengthening regional identity and rural branding (weight: ‎‎0.061) held the highest and lowest significance, respectively. Four economic opportunities, four ‎social opportunities, five environmental opportunities, and seven managerial opportunities were ‎identified. Diversifying the local economy and reducing dependence on natural resources (weight: ‎‎0.313) was the most significant economic opportunity, while empowering and socially engaging ‎local communities (weight: 0.435) ranked highest in the social dimension. In the environmental ‎dimension, strengthening local participation in resource conservation (weight: 0.284) was the ‎most critical, whereas improving sustainable management and planning of ecotourism areas ‎‎(weight: 0.199) received the highest priority in the managerial dimension. The study also examined ‎economic, social, environmental, and managerial costs. In the economic dimension, high ‎infrastructure costs for establishment (weight: 0.210) and endangerment of production and ‎agricultural jobs (weight: 0.111) were the most and least significant costs, respectively. In the ‎social dimension, increased pressure on public services (weight: 0.475) was the most significant ‎cost. In the environmental dimension, land-use changes (weight: 0.398) and noise pollution ‎‎(weight: 0.098) were the most and least significant, respectively. In the managerial dimension, high ‎initial investment requirements (weight: 0.177) and training and development costs for employees ‎‎(weight: 0.069) had the lowest significance. In terms of risks, failure to attract large-scale ‎investors (weight: 0.267) was the most significant economic risk, while creating stress and ‎pressure exceeding the area’s carrying capacity (weight: 0.434) was the highest social risk. Forest ‎fire hazards (weight: 0.203) ranked highest in the environmental dimension, and the risk of ‎cooperation failure due to conflicts of interest (weight: 0.327) was the most significant managerial ‎risk. Conversely, the risk of reduced destination appeals due to rapid and unplanned ‎development (weight: 0.055) was identified as the least significant among all risks.‎ Conclusion: The findings of this study highlight that nature-based tourism in West Azerbaijan ‎Province can offer numerous benefits, including job creation, improved local livelihoods, reduced ‎pressure on natural resources, and strengthened cultural identity. However, challenges such as high ‎infrastructure costs, increased pressure on public services, and managerial risks also exist. Achieving ‎sustainable management of the nature-based tourism value chain requires collaboration among ‎governments, local communities, and the private sector. To achieve sustainable development, the ‎study recommends improving tourism infrastructure, implementing comprehensive and targeted ‎planning, and engaging in effective destination branding to attract international tourists. Moreover, ‎empowering local communities and actively involving them in natural resource management are of ‎paramount importance. These findings provide a solid foundation for policymakers to develop and ‎implement sustainable tourism strategies in similar regions.‎‏ ‏West Azerbaijan requires coordination ‎between the government, local communities, and the private sector. It is suggested that potential ‎problems be prevented by improving infrastructure, destination branding, and monitoring the ‎development of nature tourism. The results of this research can help in more precise planning to ‎achieve sustainable development in this sector.‎

https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121657_ef7a388d01e9e9a96b206a0de1185644.pdf