https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/ Forest Research and Development en daily 1 Mon, 22 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0330 Mon, 22 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0330 https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121855.html Background and Objective: Forest canopy gaps play a crucial role in regulating the structure and dynamics of forest ecosystems. By altering light patterns, moisture levels, and spatial competition, these gaps can directly influence the crown growth of adjacent trees. Since gaps are decisive factors in regulating the spatial and light dynamics of the forest, obtaining precise information regarding their status and analyzing their impact on canopy growth is a key pillar in planning and implementing sustainable forest management strategies. Such data can be utilized in formulating management policies, restoring stand structures, and optimizing harvest intensity. Therefore, this study investigated the impact of canopy gaps on crown expansion, specifically the radial crown growth of trees adjacent to gaps compared to those not adjacent to gaps. The research was conducted in sections of both managed and unmanaged natural stands within the Shast-Kalateh Research and Educational Forest in Gorgan, utilizing UltraCam digital aerial imagery from 2011 and 2016.Material and Methods: For this purpose, the expansion and growth status of tree crowns surrounding gaps, as well as those of non-adjacent trees, were analyzed for the periods of 2011 and 2016 using UltraCam-D digital aerial imagery. Precise georeferencing and the generation of high-spatial-resolution digital orthophotomosaics were performed for both periods. Subsequently, 20 canopy gaps with appropriate distribution and varying sizes, small (20–150 m²), medium (150–300 m²), and large (greater than 300 m²), were selected from the 2011 and 2016 orthophotomosaics (identifying gaps common to both periods). The crown extent of trees adjacent and non-adjacent to these gaps was then delineated via visual interpretation for both periods, and their areas were calculated. To test data normality and compare the crown area growth (for both adjacent and non-adjacent trees) over the study period, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test and paired t-tests were employed. Furthermore, an independent t-test was used to compare the difference in crown growth rates between trees adjacent to gaps and those not adjacent to them.Results: Descriptive statistics of the crown extent for trees surrounding the selected gaps revealed that in 2016 compared to 2011, both adjacent and non-adjacent trees exhibited significant increases in minimum, maximum, and mean crown areas. The results of the paired t-test indicated that the radial growth of trees adjacent to gaps (mean = 20.811 m²) and non-adjacent trees (mean = 14.703 m²) over the five-year period was significant at a 99% confidence level. Furthermore, the independent t-test used to compare the radial crown growth between the two groups showed that the difference in mean radial growth for trees adjacent to gaps versus non-adjacent ones was statistically significant at the 99% confidence level. Trees proximal to gaps exhibited higher radial growth rates during the study period (2011–2016). Additionally, the average annual growth was estimated at 4.16 m² for adjacent trees and 2.94 m² for non-adjacent trees.Conclusion: This research demonstrates that forest canopy gaps, by increasing sunlight penetration to the lower strata, improve photosynthetic conditions and consequently enhance the crown growth of adjacent trees. The comparison between trees adjacent to gaps and those located in dense stands without gaps revealed significant differences in radial crown growth patterns and light productivity. These findings highlight the importance of gaps in regulating spatial competition and promoting the structural dynamics of forests. Moreover, the utilization of high-resolution aerial imagery, such as UltraCam, enables the precise monitoring of tree crown structural changes across broad temporal and spatial scales, serving as an effective tool for analyzing ecological trends and evaluating forest stand responses to management interventions. Such data can play a pivotal role in designing sustainable forest resource management strategies and optimizing managerial decision-making. https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121859.html Background and Objective: The natural forests of southern Iran have adapted to the region's harsh climatic conditions over millennia, and their stability is profoundly dependent on soil health and quality. In arid ecosystems, tree species play a vital role in forest productivity by inducing changes in the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil. Tree canopies create "islands of fertility" by accumulating nutrients and enhancing microbial activity, the extent of which is directly correlated with canopy size. Despite this importance, no comprehensive study has yet evaluated the impact of two valuable native species, Moringa peregrina and Salvadora persica, on soil characteristics or determined their Soil Quality Index (SQI) within the Saharo-Sindian phytogeographical region. Therefore, this study aims to elucidate the influence of these species on the soil and analyze the drivers of ecological change. The findings provide a comprehensive perspective on plant-soil interactions, assisting managers and planners in adopting optimal strategies for the sustainable management and conservation of these unique forests.Material and Methods: This research was conducted in two 1-hectare plots within the habitats of Moringa peregrina (Bashagard) and Salvadora persica (Bandar Abbas). In each habitat, 15 trees were randomly selected, and soil sampling (0–15 cm depth) was performed under the canopy and in open spaces (control) facing east. For each species, samples from every three trees were pooled to obtain five composite samples per position. Once sieved (2 mm), the samples were divided into two portions: one stored at -20°C for microbial activity assays and the other at ambient temperature for physicochemical analysis. After measuring soil properties using standard methods, data normality was verified via the Shapiro-Wilk test. Statistical comparisons between under-canopy and open-area positions were performed using independent t-tests (for normal data) or the Mann-Whitney U test (for non-normal data). Finally, the Soil Quality Index (SQI) was calculated and analyzed using the aforementioned statistical methods.Results: The results indicated that beneath the canopy of Moringa peregrina, electrical conductivity (2.11 dS/m), organic carbon (0.89%), total nitrogen (0.089%), available phosphorus (12.94 mg/kg), available calcium (347.89 mg/kg), available magnesium (33.04 mg/kg), and nitrification potential (97.07 µg NO2-N g⁻¹ dry soil 5h⁻¹) were significantly higher than in open areas, while soil pH (7.92) was significantly higher in the open areas. Beneath the canopies of both M. peregrina and Salvadora persica, significant increases were observed in available potassium (843.09 and 289.64 mg/kg, respectively), available manganese (5.7 and 4.06 mg/kg, respectively), and basal respiration (1.73 and 0.74 mg CO2 g⁻¹ dry soil 24h⁻¹) compared to their respective controls. Substrate-induced respiration (SIR) showed significant differences under the canopy of M. peregrina (11.44 mg CO2 100g⁻¹ dry soil h⁻¹) and in the open areas of S. persica (6.62 mg CO2 100g⁻¹ dry soil h⁻¹). The Soil Quality Index (SQI = 7) showed a significant difference only beneath the canopy of M. peregrina in Bashagard.Conclusion: This study demonstrates that both species induce significant modifications in the physicochemical and biological soil properties, as well as the Soil Quality Index, within their respective habitats. These findings emphasize that dominant species in each habitat reflect complex interactions between biotic and abiotic factors, with soil acting as a key environmental driver in the development and stability of vegetation cover. Given the importance of continuous soil monitoring, tracking changes in soil characteristics over different time intervals and conducting periodic assessments can provide a more accurate evaluation of ecological trends. Such data offer reliable insights for the scientific management and conservation of Saharo-Sindian forests. https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121858.html Background and Objective: Given the restrictions on wood imports and the implementation of conservation policies in Iran, the expansion of poplar plantations has become a strategic imperative. West Azerbaijan province, ranking third in cultivation area, serves as a key hub for this industry; however, the lack of precise volume models remains a significant barrier to the scientific management of these resources. This study aimed to develop volume tables for the black poplar species (Populus nigra L.) using non-destructive methods. By providing a tool for accurate volume estimation and economic planning, this research not only strengthens wood self-sufficiency but also provides the necessary foundation for regional policy-making and the sustainable management of wood farming.Material and Methods: In the first phase of this study, major Populus nigra stands were identified across the province, and 57 sample trees were selected from five distinct stands in the districts of Shahindezh, Urmia, and Khoy. A stratified random sampling approach was employed, focusing on diameter classes ranging from 10 to 30 cm, with five trees selected from different stands for each class. To estimate volume non-destructively, the diameter at breast height (DBH) and total height were measured. Additionally, upper-stem diameters were recorded at 2-meter intervals (up to a minimum diameter of 5 cm) on standing trees using a Leica D810 laser distance meter. The actual volume of the segments and the total trunk volume were then calculated using Smalian’s formula. To validate the accuracy of the laser measurements, 13 trees scheduled for felling were measured both before (using the Leica device) and after cutting (using a caliper), and the results were compared via a paired t-test, which confirmed the reliability of the non-destructive measurements. Finally, non-linear regression models, including seven single-factor (DBH-based) and nine two-factor (DBH and height-based) models, were fitted to the data. Model performance was evaluated using standard statistical indices, including the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC), Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), Mean Absolute Error (MAE), Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE), and the Willmott Index (WI), to select the optimal model. This systematic approach ensures high precision in predicting the standing volume of poplar plantations in the region.Results: The results indicated that for the 57 selected trees, the mean diameter at breast height (DBH) was 19.9 cm, the mean total height was 17.9 m, and the mean actual trunk volume was 0.29 m³. The paired t-test demonstrated no significant difference between the diameter measurements obtained by the caliper and the Leica device, confirming that both instruments perform identically in measuring diameter. Based on the evaluation criteria for ranking the models, the Hohenadl-Krenn model was identified as the best-performing single-factor model, while the Takata model was the superior two-factor model. Consequently, these models were utilized to develop the single-factor and two-factor volume tables for Populus nigra L., respectively.Conclusion: This research demonstrates that non-destructive methods are efficient tools for accurately collecting the parameters necessary for volume estimation while preserving tree health and preventing unnecessary felling. This approach not only reduces inventory costs and time but also enables continuous monitoring and optimized management of poplar plantations. Given that West Azerbaijan province possesses significant potential for poplar wood farming, access to accurate volume tables is vital for managerial and economic planning. Ultimately, by providing precise volume tables and emphasizing non-destructive techniques, this study represents a major step toward the sustainable management of poplar plantations in West Azerbaijan. It is expected that these findings will serve as a basis for informed and strategic decision-making in the expansion of wood farming, contributing to the achievement of sustainable development goals for natural resources. https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121931.html Background and Objective: The desiccation of lakes and wetlands in arid and semi-arid regions, such as Lake Urmia, is driven by climate change and anthropogenic pressures, leading to the formation of unstable saline playas that serve as major sources of harmful dust. Establishing salt-tolerant shrubs like Tamarix ramosissima (tamarisk) is an effective strategy for soil stabilization and microclimate modulation. The microclimate created beneath shrub canopies reduces temperature, buffers thermal fluctuations, increases relative humidity, and limits evaporation, thereby influencing surface crack morphology in saline-clay soils. Such cracks not only disrupt water infiltration, gas exchange, and root growth but also provide pathways for wind erosion. However, knowledge of how plant-induced microclimates affect crack patterns in these ecosystems remains limited, hindering the optimization of ecological restoration efforts.Material and Methods: This study assessed the impact of microclimates generated by hand-planted tamarisk shrubs on surface soil crack morphology in the western dried bed of Lake Urmia. Sixty shrubs, planted since 2015, were systematically selected based on uniformity in height, canopy dimensions, and spacing to minimize confounding factors. Prevailing wind directions were determined using synoptic station wind-rose data (1949-2021). From 15 shrubs, high-resolution vertical digital images (n= 120) were acquired at two sampling positions per shrub, beneath the canopy (at half-canopy radius) and outside the canopy (5-8 m from the stem base, in inter-canopy gaps), across four cardinal directions (N, S, E, W). Images were processed using PCAS (Pores and Cracks Analysis System) to extract key morphological indices: crack density (Dc), area-to-perimeter ratio (AWMARP), weighted mean fractal dimension (AWMFRAC), and morphological connectivity (r). Statistical analyses (two-way ANOVA, Tukey’s HSD, independent t-tests) compared indices across canopy conditions and directions.Results: Shrub microclimates significantly altered crack morphology. Under canopies, mean Dc was 1.99% versus 0.70% in open areas; AWMARP was >2× higher (0.0375 vs. 0.014); AWMFRAC was ~12× greater (1.40 vs. 0.122); and r increased by ~83% (0.293 vs. 0.160). Two-way ANOVA confirmed highly significant effects of canopy position on all indices (p< 0.01), while direction alone significantly affected only r (p< 0.01). Interaction effects (position × direction) were significant for AWMARP and r, indicating directional dependence of microclimate impacts. Maximum Dc and AWMFRAC occurred in the NE and NW directions beneath canopies. Independent t-tests revealed highly significant differences (p< 0.01): Dc (+65%), AWMARP (+>60%), AWMFRAC (+~91%), and r (+~43%) were all higher under canopy. Visual PCAS outputs confirmed denser, more uniform, semi-regular polygonal crack networks beneath canopies, versus sparse, irregular, fragmented patterns in open areas, highlighting the efficacy of tamarisk-induced microclimate in modulating soil physical processes.Conclusion: Hand-planted tamarisk shrubs substantially enhance surface crack morphology in the western playa of Lake Urmia by fostering structured, dense, interconnected crack networks, thereby improving soil hydraulic and biological functionality. Greatest effects occurred in NE and NW aspects, likely due to interactions between microclimate, prevailing winds, and solar radiation. Functionally, tamarisk acts as an ecosystem engineer, offering more than physical stabilization, by enabling ecological restoration and dust mitigation. Moreover, crack morphological indices serve as valuable quantitative indicators for evaluating restoration effectiveness in arid degraded lands. https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121856.html Background and Objective: Forests represent one of the most vital natural resources, covering approximately 30% of the Earth's land surface. While forests are categorized as renewable resources, they are increasingly susceptible to disturbances such as land-use change and wildfires. Furthermore, over the past few decades, the presence of livestock breeders and forest dwellers has emerged as a significant driver of forest degradation. Consequently, assessing forest sustainability is imperative for their conservation, restoration, and optimal management. The Malekshahi watershed, located in Ilam Province, is a key forested region within the Zagros mountains that has recently experienced a decline in forest cover and biodiversity, alongside escalating degradation. This study aims to evaluate the forest sustainability of this watershed based on the framework established by the University and the Natural Resources and Watershed Management Organization of Iran to provide effective management strategies for its preservation and restoration.Material and Methods: This guideline represents one of the most comprehensive national frameworks for assessing the sustainability of forest ecosystems, developed based on ecological and managerial principles. The methodology evaluates six primary criteria: the extent of forest resources, biodiversity, health, vitality and integrity, productive functions of forest resources, protective and environmental functions, and socio-economic functions. Each criterion comprises a set of sub-indicators, indicators, and measurement variables, totaling 22 indicators and 83 variables. Scoring was performed for each variable based on the current regional status; subsequently, through weighted averaging, the final score for each criterion and the overall sustainability level of the forest ecosystem were calculated and classified. Furthermore, to complement the analysis and achieve a more precise understanding of environmental trends, Landsat 7 satellite imagery from 2011 and Landsat 8 imagery from 2021 were utilized.Results: According to the results of this study, the final sustainability score for the forest ecosystem in the Malekshahi watershed was calculated as 55, which classifies the region's sustainability as "moderate." Several factors have contributed to the decline of forest ecosystem stability in this area. Limited availability of agricultural land, particularly in mountainous regions, coupled with high demand for arable land, has led to the expansion of farming activities into forested areas, resulting in significant deforestation. This degradation has further led to a reduction in biodiversity, soil quality deterioration, and environmental issues such as decreased water absorption capacity and increased dust storms (haze). Land-use change analysis between 2011 and 2021 indicates that forest cover decreased from 6,266 hectares to 5,364 hectares during this period. Conversely, agricultural land increased from 2,527 hectares in 2011 to 2,557 hectares in 2021. Additionally, rangelands experienced a 2% increase, reaching 1,331 hectares by 2021.Conclusion: The findings of this research highlight a trend of forest degradation and unsustainable land-use changes within the region. To counter this trend and enhance sustainability levels, the adoption of integrated management strategies is essential. Recommended measures include increasing local community participation in the conservation and sustainable exploitation of forest resources, establishing a good governance system in natural resource management, and enhancing ecological resilience through revegetation and the control of destructive practices. Furthermore, implementing alternative livelihood programs—such as developing apiculture, cultivating medicinal plants, expanding handicrafts, and leveraging sustainable tourism capacities—can alleviate pressure on forest resources while improving the socio-economic status of residents and increasing the sustainability of forest ecosystems. Overall, the results of this study emphasize the necessity of integrating ecological and managerial approaches into natural resource planning and policymaking. https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121806.html Background and Objective: The Zagros forests, the second-largest natural forest ecosystem in Iran, serve as the most extensive and vital habitat for various oak species in the country. The Green Oak Leaf Roller (Tortrix viridana L.) is a key pest affecting these species in the region. While pheromone traps are widely employed in the integrated pest management (IPM) of T. viridana through various methods, their efficacy can vary depending on regional conditions, host characteristics, and the biological traits of the pest. The present study was conducted in the Mirabad region of Sardasht to investigate the pest's biology, the influence of elevation on pheromone trap efficiency, and the effects of trap placement and installation height on the capture rate of T. viridana.Material and Methods: The biology of the pest was monitored through weekly sampling of different larval instars and pupae. The influence of the host oak species on pest development was evaluated by measuring the weights of final-instar larvae and pupae in the Perdanan and Mirabad regions (each area comprising 1,500 larvae and 1,500 pupae across two species: Quercus infectoria and Q. brantii). To examine the effect of elevation, three altitudinal gradients (1100–1200, 1200–1300, and 1300–1400 m a.s.l.) were selected on eastern-facing slopes. In each gradient, 10 pheromone traps were installed on the outer canopy of Q. infectoria trees (totaling 30 traps). Furthermore, to assess trap placement, 10 traps were positioned inside the canopy and 10 on the outer canopy. The effect of installation height was also evaluated by placing 10 traps at a height of 1.5 meters and 10 traps at 3 meters above the ground. Data were analyzed using SPSS software, version 21.Results: T. viridana underwent five larval instars, followed by the prepupal and pupal stages. The first pupae were observed in late May. After emergence and mating, the adults began oviposition, completing one generation per year (univoltine). The pest overwinters in the egg stage, with adults remaining active for approximately 30–40 days. The initial emergence of adults occurred in early June, peaking around June 10th, and all pest activity ceased by mid-July. Females lay eggs in clusters of two to four on young shoots near buds, ensuring larvae can feed on fresh buds immediately upon hatching. The larval scales are gray to brown, camouflaging with the branches, which makes visual detection difficult. The average weight of final-instar larvae showed a significant difference (p < 0.05) between the two oak species, with the highest larval weight recorded on Q. infectoria in the Mirabad region. Additionally, the weights of both larvae and pupae in 2021 (1400 AP) showed an increase compared to 2011 (1390 AP), with pupae on Q. infectoria being significantly heavier than those on Q. brantii. Adult capture rates in pheromone traps varied significantly across different elevations, with the highest capture occurring at 1100–1200 m. Traps positioned inside the canopy captured more insects than those outside the canopy, whereas installation height (upper vs. lower canopy) did not significantly affect capture rates. The average captures for traps in the upper and lower canopy were 43 and 46 adults per trap, respectively.Conclusion: The results indicate that the Mirabad region in Sardasht is experiencing high infestation levels of the Green Oak Leaf Roller, as confirmed by the substantial number of insects captured in pheromone traps. A comparison between 2011 and 2021 highlights a significant population increase and the expansion of the pest across most areas of West Azerbaijan Province. The optimal placement for pheromone traps was identified at an elevation of 1100–1200 m, specifically within the lower half and interior of the oak canopy. In areas with high pest density, installing traps in the upper canopy is not recommended, as it is less efficient and increases the time and effort required for control operations. https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121853.html Background and Objective: Forests represent one of the most critical terrestrial ecosystems, playing a fundamental role in biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration, and environmental stability. While the resilience of these ecosystems is intrinsically linked to soil quality, factors such as land-use change, industrial pollution, climate change, and unsustainable management practices have led to widespread forest soil degradation. This process not only hinders vegetation growth and establishment but also compromises essential soil functions, including nutrient cycling, carbon storage, and hydrological regulation. Consequently, soil quality has emerged as a key metric for assessing the health and sustainability of forest ecosystems. Despite its significance, a comprehensive and standardized set of indicators for evaluating forest soil quality remains lacking. Therefore, the present study aims to develop and introduce novel soil quality indices to facilitate the robust monitoring of forest soil health.Material and Methods: This study was conducted using a systematic review approach to evaluate forest soil quality indices. Scientific literature was retrieved from reputable national and international databases using keywords related to soil quality, forest soils, soil fertility, and soil biological indicators. The search timeframe encompassed 1390 to 1404 AP for Persian sources and 2000 to 2025 AD for international publications. Following screening and rigorous assessment, a total of 115 scientific articles were selected for analysis. The results of this review highlight the conceptual evolution of soil quality and identify the most critical physical, chemical, and biological indicators used in forest soil assessments. Among these, soil organic matter, structural properties, stratification, biodiversity, and microbial and enzymatic activities emerged as the most significant evaluation criteria. Furthermore, the capacity and application of novel biological indices, including community composition analysis, molecular and genetic methods, DNA sequencing, proteomics, and metabolomics, were examined for monitoring the health and function of forest soils.Results: The results of this research indicate that soil health and quality are vital factors in maintaining human health and the sustainability of forest ecosystems. A review of existing literature reveals that the concept of soil quality is continuously evolving, necessitating more precise criteria for assessment in the context of forest sustainability and public health. Findings suggest that biological soil indicators, such as urease and dehydrogenase enzyme activities, microbial respiration, and labile organic carbon, exhibit greater sensitivity and accuracy in monitoring forest soil quality compared to traditional physical and chemical parameters. Based on this systematic review, an integrated framework incorporating the fungal-to-bacterial (F:B) ratio, metabolic quotient, and ecological stoichiometry indices is proposed as a novel suite for soil quality evaluation. This framework is highly applicable across various management levels and can detect changes induced by anthropogenic activities and natural disturbances with high precision.Conclusion: This systematic review emphasizes that the future of forest soil quality assessment must transition from traditional physical and chemical indices toward an integrated framework centered on sensitive biological indicators. Synthesized from previous studies, this proposed framework identifies the fungal-to-bacterial (F:B) ratio, metabolic quotient, key enzymatic activities (urease and dehydrogenase), and stoichiometric indices (microbial C:N ratio) as the core components for soil quality monitoring. Implementing this framework enables forest managers not only to facilitate early detection of degradation and evaluate the efficacy of conservation management practices but also to achieve dynamic and practical monitoring of forest ecosystem health. Future research priorities should focus on the localization and validation of these integrated indices within Iran's forest ecosystems. https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121608.html Background and objectivesJuniperus excelsa L. is one of the most important coniferous species that has wide habitats in Iran. J. excelsa is habitats in large areas of the mountains of Iran at the altitudes 750 to 3400 m. The juniper habitats of the world are mostly spread in semi-arid areas with limited humidity, and this condition also prevails for juniper habitats in Iran. High tolerance in the most difficult climatic, geological and hydrological conditions is one of the distinctive features of J. excelsa and it has high medicinal, antimicrobial, antifungal and antibacterial properties. Environmental studies of juniper habitats report the cessation or insufficient regeneration of juniper in many of its habitats. The seed production cycle (seeding period) of juniper is long and usually between 4 and 8 years, and as a result, seeds are produced every year. It is not produced and is not available in sufficient quantities. Also, factors such as poor pollination, high amount of empty and dead seeds and low percentage of survival and growth of seeds, long period of dormancy in seeds, and non-establishment of remaining juniper seedlings due to excessive livestock grazing, have put the regeneration of this species in jeopardy. As a result, the vegetative reproduction of this organism is crucial, and according to global studies, it seems that this important forest species is on the verge of extinction. By reviewing the literature, it seems that plant tissue culture is an efficient tool for the continuous production of valuable and endangered forest species. Also, this method may be the only alternative that allows the simulation of rare and endangered populations of woody plants, including J. excelsa. The use of new technologies for the reproduction of J. excelsa based on micropropagation is of particular importance today in the face of climate change, which is a great threat to natural forest ecosystems. Therefore, the main goal of this research is to optimize salt concentration and plant growth regulators in the regeneration and rooting of J. excelsa in vitro and its mass production in a short time.MethodologyIn this study, the effect of plant growth regulators BAP, KIN and TDZ at four levels (0, 1, 2 and 5 mg L-1) separately and in combination with IAA at three levels (0, 1/ 0 and 0.5 mg L-1) were investigated in MS culture medium. In addition, for rooting, the effects of 6 different basic media (OM, MS, DKW, WPM, 1/2 MS, and 1/4 MS) containing IBA (0.5 mg L-1) were investigated.ResultsThe results showed that the maximum regeneration for J. excelsa area (94.43%) was achieved in the MS culture medium and in the combination of KIN (1 mg L-1) with IAA (0.1 mg L-1). Also, the maximum average number of branches was observed in the culture medium without cytokinin in the MS culture medium for J. excelsa. The maximum shoot length was recorded in the combination of KIN (1 mg L-1) and IAA (0 mg L-1). The highest rooting percentage (33.33%) was obtained under the conditions of induction of plant growth regulator IBA (0.5 mg L-1) and cultivation in OM culture medium for one week.ConclusionSome woody plants, especially the endangered species, are facing reproductive and regeneration problems in their natural habitats. Conventional vegetative and reproductive methods do not lead to successful propagation of these species. The results showed that DKW culture medium supplemented with BAP (1 mg L-1) and IAA (0.1 mg L-1) is the best and most effective culture medium for the propagation of J.excelsa branch. In addition, the best culture medium for J.excelsa rooting is related to the induction of plant growth regulator IBA (0.5 mg L-1) in OM culture medium for one week. https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121852.html Background and objectives: The Arasbaran forests, recognized as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, face significant challenges to sustainable management. A major part of these challenges stems from conflicts of interest among diverse stakeholder groups, each possessing distinct objectives, needs, and levels of influence in forest use and conservation. Although conflicts of interest in natural resource management—particularly in forests—are common and have accompanied human exploitation of nature throughout history, systematic scientific attention to this issue, especially in Iranian forests, has been limited. Accordingly, this study aimed to identify and categorize the types of stakeholder conflicts in the Arasbaran forests to provide a clear understanding of the underlying causes of these conflicts and to facilitate the implementation of participatory management toward sustainable development in this valuable ecosystem.Methodology: This research is applied in terms of objective, mixed-methods (quantitative and qualitative) in terms of data collection, and descriptive-analytical in terms of execution. The study population included local users and knowledgeable residents, government experts, members of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and university faculty in the field of natural resources. The study was conducted in 18 selected villages within the protected areas and Dezmar region of the Arasbaran forests. Sampling was carried out using snowball tecnique and proportional random methods, resulting in data collection from 387 local residents, 41 government experts, 32 NGO members, and 33 university faculty members. Data were collected during 1403–1404 (2024–2025) through semi-structured interviews, semi-structured questionnaires, direct observation, and secondary data. The questionnaire’s validity was confirmed using face and content validity methods, and its reliability was verified with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.93. To identify the final categories of conflicts of interest, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed using principal component analysis (PCA) with direct oblimin rotation in SPSS version 26. The adequacy of the data for factor analysis was confirmed by the KMO test (0.920) and Bartlett’s test of sphericity (P = 0.00). Results: The exploratory factor analysis revealed that 16 variables related to conflicts of interest in the Arasbaran forests could be classified into three main factors, explaining 75.699% of the total variance. The three factors were: (1) conflicts arising from forest resource use and human development, (2) managerial and governance conflicts, and (3) conflicts associated with tourism development. The first factor, the strongest dimension of conflict, included 10 variables such as livestock presence, construction of primary roads, agricultural land expansion, fuelwood production, timber harvesting, hunting, rural access roads construction, mining exploration and extraction, non-timber products harvesting, illegal harvest of non-timber products, reflecting direct human interventions in forest ecosystems. The second factor comprised five variables, including conflict between research activities and ecosystem conservation, agroforestry, use of water resource, conflict between forest dwellers and neighboring village residents, land tenure conflict, highlighting institutional, social, and governance challenges. The third factor included only the variable of tourism development, identified as an emerging and independent source of conflict. Furthermore, 19 stakeholder groups were identified and categorized into six main clusters: local communities (forest dwellers, pastoralists, farmers, and gardeners), direct forest resource users (local timber harvesters, non-timber forest product (NTFP) users and Wildlife hunters), livelihood and production-related activities (beekeepers, sericulturists, aquaculture farmers, forest raw material–dependent industries, and mine operators), tourism and related services (tourists and tourism service companies), governmental policy-making, management, and conservation (department of natural resources and watershed management, department of environment, organization of cultural heritage, handicrafts and tourism, military organizations), and research, education, and civil society actors (university faculty, researchers, and members of non-governmental organizations).Conclusion: The findings provide a clear picture of the complexity and multidimensional nature of conflicts of interest in the Arasbaran forests, demonstrating that the diversity of stakeholders and the conflicts among their interests pose significant challenges to sustainable ecosystem management. Conflicts were primarily concentrated along two axes: physical-material pressures from direct resource exploitation and institutional-social challenges related to governance and land management. These circumstances underscore the need to shift from traditional, centralized approaches toward participatory governance. Implementing such an approach requires coordinated actions, including reducing destructive pressures on forest ecosystems through sustainable and alternative livelihoods, strengthening governance structures and clarifying access rights, planning sustainable tourism development, and, most importantly, establishing effective mechanisms for dialogue, trust-building, and genuine participation of all stakeholder groups in decision-making and management processes. Achieving a sustainable balance among conservation, economic, and social objectives in the region is only possible through such an integrated and synergistic approach. https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121860.html Background and Objective: Gyan Forest is the only remaining Zagros Forest in Hamedan Province. This forest has a high recreational value for tourists within the province as well as other parts of the country. . Today, with the asphalting of this road, traffic is easier and as a result, the number of tourists entering this forest has increased day by day. Different departments and institutions in Nahavand County have different opinions regarding the management of this forest. According to some experts, the protection and complete enclosure of this forest is essential for its survival, while others believe in transforming it into a series of tourist-oriented and income-generating service and recreation centers. Currently, this forest cannot be removed from the list of scenic spots in the province, nor is it possible to completely enclose it. Of course, continuing the current trend will also lead to the gradual destruction and loss of this valuable forest. The movement of tourists and vehicles throughout the forest, the presence of various types of stalls and booths, soil compaction, lighting fires in various places, breaking tree branches, etc. will lead to many problems. It should be noted that the livelihood of some residents of Gyan city depends on this forest. The reconstruction of the Gyan forest roads network has had an impact on various aspects of the environment and tourism of this forest. The purpose of this research is to use the opinions and views of stakeholders and individuals who are involved in this forest and its related issues in some way. Material and Methods: In this study, the status of the forest and its future strategy were determined using the opinions of forest-related experts using SWOT analysis. In the first stage, open-ended questionnaires (35 questionnaires) were provided to experts from the Nahavand County Natural Resources Department, the Nahavand County Environmental Department, the Nahavand County Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism Organization, Gyan Municipality, and researchers from the Hamadan Province Agricultural and Natural Resources Research and Education Center to express their opinions on the four factors of strength, weakness, opportunity, and threat. After the opinions were summarized, a second questionnaire was distributed with the aim of numbering the factors. The scoring was based on a Likert scale (1-5). After the collection, a forestry expert was asked to weight the factors according to their importance. The basis of the work was that the expert first listed the strengths and then the weaknesses in order of importance and assigned each factor a weighting coefficient between zero (unimportant) and one (very important). The same was done for the opportunities and threats. Internal strengths and weaknesses as well as external opportunities and threats were analyzed in the relevant matrices (internal and external factors assessment matrix). Finally, to determine the final score of each factor, the coefficient of each factor was multiplied by its score. The use of a weighting coefficient is because different factors do not have the same impact on the state of the forest, so by determining the weighting coefficient, the importance of the more important factors was determined. To select the factors, since each factor has a long description, summarizing the factors helped to find them more easily. Next, the average of the factors, the maximum and minimum of each factor in different departments were obtained, and finally, based on the results of summing up the internal and external factors in each department, the strategy of that department was determined.Results: The results showed that the maximum average of the opinions of the experts of the relevant departments regarding the internal factor of the strength of the reconstruction of the roads network of Gyan forest is the inspection of the officers (3.94) and the minimum is related to the access of the researchers (3.17). The maximum average of the opinions of the experts of the relevant departments regarding the internal factor of the weakness of the reconstruction of the roads network of Gyan forest is the inappropriate density of the road (3.75) and the minimum is related to the low safety of the road (2.72). Also, the findings of the research showed that the factors of unit management and increasing the income of the communities had the maximum average according to the experts (4.17), while the cycling and walking road (3.00) had the lowest value. The findings of the research regarding the maximum and minimum average of the external threat factor in different departments showed that the threat factor of genetic reserves (4.28) had the highest value and the construction of facilities (3.33) had the lowest value. According to the research findings, the most important strength factor is forest-related services. Based on the results, the low level of road safety standards and the use of inappropriate road materials were reported as important weaknesses in the reconstruction of the forest roads network. The highest score for the opportunity factor was given to the unit management of all economic, natural, cultural, and historical facilities by the elected council of relevant forest departments. Regarding the external threat factor, the most important factor was the lack of a unit management consisting of officials and experts from departments related to the Gyan forest.Conclusion: In general, based on the research findings, it was determined that the most important factor of strength is the services related to the forest. The low level of road safety standards and the use of inappropriate road materials were also among the most important weaknesses. In relation to the external factor of opportunity, the highest score was given to the unit management of all economic, natural, cultural and historical facilities by the selected council of relevant departments to comprehensively advance the environmental, tourism and economic goals of local communities in the Gyan forest. Also, regarding the external factor of threat, the most important factor was the lack of unit management consisting of officials and experts from the various units involved. In general, the overall strategy in this forest was determined as a competitive strategy (ST). https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121913.html Introduction and Objective: Entrepreneurship is one of the most effective approaches for improving the economic and social conditions of rural areas. It is a process that, through the creation of small and medium sized businesses, leads to increased income, reduced unemployment rates, prevention of excessive rural to urban migration, improved quality of life, and the empowerment of rural residents. Entrepreneurship through tree farming particularly focused on Populus trees stands (Populus spp.) considered an innovative and sustainable economic activity with high potential for job creation, supplying raw materials for the wood industry, conserving natural resources, and providing environmental services. Populus trees, due to their fast growth, adaptability to the northern climate of Iran, compatibility with intercropping systems, and significant role in tree farming, are especially suitable for this purpose. The counties of Guilan Province, especially Sowmeh Sara, possess great potential for developing tree farming as a means of entrepreneurship, thanks to their favorable climate, fertile soil, and high groundwater levels. The main objective of the study is to surveying the economic and social role of wood farming in promoting rural entrepreneurship from the perspective of Populus farmers in Guilan Province, aiming to provide strategies for sustainable rural development through a detailed analysis of this activity.Materials and Methods: This research was conducted using an exploratory mixed-methods approach, combining both quantitative and qualitative techniques. The primary data collection tool was a structured questionnaire designed with input from experts in forestry science and engineering, as well as specialists in wood farming. The questionnaire addressed four key dimensions of rural entrepreneurship: individual, economic, managerial-technological, and social. Content validity of the questionnaires was confirmed by experts, and reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, yielding a coefficient of 0.93, indicating high instrument reliability. The statistical population consisted of 60 active Populus farmers in Guilan Province, selected through cluster sampling due to the geographical dispersion of farmers and the concentration of wood farming activities in specific areas of the province. Collected data were analyzed using statistical software and exploratory factor analysis. Factor loadings, eigenvalues, and explained variance percentages were examined for each factor. To enhance analytical precision, Varimax rotation was applied to clarify the factor structure. In addition to quantitative analysis, qualitative insights were gathered from farmers regarding challenges, opportunities, and motivations for engaging in wood farming.Findings: The results of data analysis revealed that wood farming has a significant social impact on improving the quality of life for rural residents. Approximately 55% of respondents believed that engaging in wood farming enhanced household welfare, increased economic security, and reduced dependence on seasonal jobs. Furthermore, 22% emphasized that this activity created new employment opportunities for rural youth and helped prevent their migration to urban centers. Therefore, 76.67% of them were interested in participating in training courses and using modern technologies to improve performance. From an economic perspective, considering the numerous challenges faced by agriculture in recent years including declining income, rising production costs, and market volatility 81.67% of respondents expressed willingness to continue investing in wood farming. This figure reflects strong confidence among farmers in the sustainability and profitability of the activity. Many farmers also stated that wood farming offers higher economic returns compared to other agricultural practices, and due to the shorter growth cycle of Populus species, capital recovery is achievable within a reasonable timeframe. Exploratory factor analysis results showed that the economic dimension, with an eigenvalue of 4.92, explained 38.45% of the total variance, indicating a more influential role in rural entrepreneurship compared to other dimensions, especially the social one. The finding suggests that economic motivations such as income generation, financial risk reduction, and resource efficiency are the primary drivers for farmers to engage in wood farming. Conclusion: Based on the findings of this study, wood farming centered on Populus trees serves as a sustainable economic activity that significantly contributes to rural entrepreneurship. This practice not only helps meet the country’s timber needs but also fosters employment, boosts income, improves living standards, and alleviates pressure on natural forests thereby laying the groundwork for sustainable development in rural areas. Moreover, wood farming can be a strategic response to environmental challenges such as climate change, soil erosion, and resource depletion. In light of the research results, it is recommended that supportive and incentive policies be formulated for Populus farmers, including financial assistance, guaranteed product purchase, crop insurance, and the establishment of local and regional timber markets.Additionally, organizing training programs to enhance farmers’ technical knowledge, introducing fast-growing and resilient species, and developing necessary infrastructure for wood processing can increase productivity and profitability. At the national level, wood farming should be integrated into broader strategies for natural resource management and rural development. https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121916.html Background and objectives: Defoliating forest pests are among the most significant threats to the health and stability of forest ecosystems. Climate change and rising global average temperatures have contributed to increased frequency and geographical expansion of these pests in Iranian forests. One such pest, the oak leaf roller (Tortrix viridana L.), causes extensive defoliation and reduces photosynthetic capacity in coppice oak trees by feeding on their leaves. Effectively controlling this pest, especially in hard-to-access forests like those in the Zagros vegetation zone, remains a key challenge for forest resource management. In this context, biological control methods, due to their environmental compatibility and reduced ecological impact, serve as a suitable alternative to traditional chemical pesticides. This study aimed to investigate the effects of aerial spraying with the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) on the oak leaf roller population and to evaluate the efficacy of the remote sensing NDVI index (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) from Sentinel-2 imagery in monitoring vegetation changes and pest activity impacts.Methodology: This study was conducted over approximately 926 hectares of oak forests in the Qabr-e-Hossein area of Piranshahr county, northwestern Iran, a known hotspot for this pest infestation. For pest control, ground-based Bt spraying at a concentration of 1 kg per 100 liters of water was carried out between May 6 and 13, 2023 (May 5–12, 2023). A Before–After Control–Impact (BACI) design was employed for quantitative impact assessment. In both the treatment and control areas, three 300-meter transects were systematically randomized. Within each transect, 30 trees were selected at 30-meter intervals (totaling 90 sample plots per area). Larval counts were performed in two stages: before spraying (May 2–4, 2023) and one month after (June 15–16, 2023). A linear mixed-effects model within the BACI framework was used to analyze the spray's effect on larval density, with treatment, time, and their interaction as fixed effects and tree ID as a random effect. Additionally, the percentage reduction in larval density was calculated using the ΔDxt index as a descriptive measure of Bt efficacy. To monitor the vegetation response to pest population changes, the NDVI index was calculated using Sentinel-2 Level-2A surface reflectance imagery from March 21 to September 22, 2023. Image processing and extraction of 10-meter pixel-scale NDVI time series for selected field plots were performed using the Google Earth Engine platform. Finally, the relationship between NDVI and larval density in control and treatment areas, before and after spraying, was examined using simple linear regression.Results: Descriptive statistics indicated that the mean density of T. viridana larvae in the treatment area decreased from 53.37 ± 15.74 larvae per tree before spraying to 18.73 ± 7.26 larvae after spraying. In contrast, larval density changes in the control area were minimal, with the mean shifting from 48.74 ± 12.25 to 47.03 ± 10.87 larvae per tree. Results from the linear mixed-effects model revealed a statistically highly significant treatment × time interaction (p < 0.001), confirming the real and independent effect of Bt spraying on larval density reduction, distinct from natural population fluctuations observed in the control area. Post-hoc comparisons confirmed a significant decrease in larval density in the treatment area and no significant change in the control area. Calculation of the ΔDxt index showed an average larval density reduction of approximately 65% in the treatment area, whereas only a negligible decrease within the range of natural fluctuations was observed in the control area. Analysis of the NDVI time series showed that both control and treatment areas followed a similar seasonal pattern during the growing season. However, following Bt application, NDVI values in the treatment area remained consistently higher than those in the control area. While NDVI in the control area experienced a more pronounced decline after early June, the treatment area maintained higher NDVI values, indicating reduced larval feeding activity and preserved vegetation cover due to Bt spraying. Simple linear regression results showed a positive and significant relationship between NDVI and larval density in both areas before spraying. After spraying, this relationship remained positive but weaker in the control area, whereas in the treatment area, the relationship between NDVI and larval density became statistically non-significant.Conclusion: The results of this study demonstrate that biological spraying with Bt significantly reduced the larval density of the oak leaf roller. This reduction, based on the BACI design and mixed-effects model, was clearly distinguishable from natural pest population fluctuations in the control area. The decrease in larval feeding activity post-spraying was associated with the maintenance of higher NDVI values in the treatment area, indicating limited defoliation and preserved photosynthetic capacity in the oak trees. Furthermore, regression analysis revealed that after Bt application, the correlation between NDVI and larval density in the treatment area weakened and became statistically non-significant, while it persisted in the control area. These findings suggest that integrating field data with the Sentinel-2 NDVI index can provide an effective framework for the quantitative assessment of biological pest control efficacy and for monitoring forest health at large scales, offering a sound scientific basis for the sustainable management of oak forests. https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121927.html AbstractIntroduction and Objective: Litterfall decomposition is one of the most important ecological processes for determining the cycle of nutrient elements and ecosystem function. This process is mainly influenced by three main factors: quality and quantity of plant residues, physical conditions (temperature and humidity) and soil microbes such as bacteria and fungi. It is possible to improve a nutrient cycling and return these elements to the soil via the decomposition of leaves and plant residues. This process improves soil functions, controls soil ecological conditions, and factors affecting the activity of microbial communities and their growth. On the other hand, the accumulation of litterfall and other plant residues on the forest floor is the most important source of organic matter entering in to the soil, and its decomposition is considered one of the most important processes that determine the amount of organic carbon sequestration in the soil. The purpose of this research was to investigate the amount of litterfall decomposition in some broadleaf and coniferous trees in different land uses including garden, agriculture, and forest.Material and Methods: This research was conducted in Ilam province in 2019, taking into account three land uses, including forest in the protected area of Manshet and Qalarang, garden and agriculture in the north of Ilam city. In order to investigate the process of litter decomposition of three broad-leaved tree species, including Iranian oak (Quercus brantii L.), pistacia (Pistacia atlantica Desf.), hawthorn (Crataegus pontica C.Koch.), and two coniferous species such as black pine (Pinus brutia Ten.) and cerosorbine (Cupressus Sempervirens L.) were selected. Life litter were collected from natural forests and placed in litter bags with dimensions of 20 x 20 cm and 2 mm hole diameter. The total litter bags were 180. After each litter bag collection, litter quality indicators were measured in periods of 60, 120, 180 and 240 days. Litterfall quality indicators included the final limit of litter decomposition, the maximum amount of organic matter lost using weight, and the potential capacity of homogenization. Data analysis was done factorial on the basis of complete random block with three replications through analysis of variance and mean comparison (Duncan's test, probability level of five and one percent) using SAS 9.1 software.Results: The results showed that the factors of time, species and land use had an effect on the quality indicators of litterfall decomposition. The results showed that the highest amount of organic matter lost belonged to pistacia leaves with 34% after 240 days period and the lowest amount was related to cupressus leaves with 14% in 60 days period. In different land uses, the lowest and the highest amount of organic matter lost was allocated to cupressus with 18% and pistacia with 36.2%, respectively. The decomposition rate of cupressus did not show any significant difference in different uses, but the pistacia and quercus leaves had a higher decomposition rate than other conifers due to their physiological structure and palatability. In agriculture and garden land uses, the final limit of decomposition was obtained in crataegus and pistacia litter more than other litterfalls, but in forest land use, the final limit of decomposition in quercus litter was 65% (due to the original site of quercus trees in Zagros forests) more than other litterfalls became. Also, the highest amount of humicization in three different land uses was related to pistacia and cupressus litter and the lowest rate in forest land use was related to quercus litter with 0.35 parts. In general, according to the obtained results, among different trees, in terms of the final limit of decomposition, the quercus species showed the highest amount, but the litterfall had a higher decomposition rate than other leaves. In addition, it can be concluded that the process of decomposition was somewhat similar in different land uses, because the garden and agriculture used in the past were forests, and with the passage of time they changed their land use, but due to the scientific cultivation and natural conditions they were similar to the forest. Conclusion: In this study, in forest, agriculture, and garden land uses, the amount of organic matter lost in the dead leaves of oak trees was more than other dead leaves of other tree species. Based on the results of this research, the amount of organic matter lost has also increased over time. In forest land use, oak litterfall was the highest in terms of decomposition rate compared to other tree species. While, the litterfalls of two species of cypress and pistacia compared to other litterfall showed a higher potential capacity of homosization and this caused the reduction of the final limit of decomposition in these litterfalls. It seems that in the forest ecosystem studied in Zagros zone, two species of pistacia and oak have the greatest effect in increasing soil fertility and improving the cycle of nutrients in the soil. So that this effect is significant even after changing the landuse of forest to garden and agriculture. Therefore, for reforestation in the Zagros region, planting pistacia as a species accompany with the oak tree can be prioritized in forestry projects and despite the presence of native species with a favorable decomposition rate up to As much as possible, foresters avoided the entry of conifers in these fields.Keywords: Persian oak, litter bag, soil, organic matter loss, Ilam. https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121928.html Background and objectives: Sustainable management of forest ecosystems requires the application of biodiversity indicators. Tree-related Microhabitats (TreMs) can play these roles because they host specialized species that are directly or indirectly dependent on them and are generally more abundant and diverse in natural forests or forests that have not been managed for decades. TreMs are structures on living or dead trees that provide a specific habitat or habitat essential for at least part of the life cycle of species or species communities for development, nutrition, or shelter. They exhibit a wide range of structures (such as dendrotelms, Woodpecker cavities, insect galleries and bore holes, etc.) that are essential for many animal, plant, or fungal species, and several species are highly dependent on these specific microhabitats. Some, such as cavities, can host multiple species. The aim of this project was to identify and evaluate TreMs and compare their characteristics at different development stages in the less disturbed heathlands of the control compartment in the Kelardasht region.Methodology: This study was conducted in district one of control compartment of Langa forest management plan in watershed no. 36 (Kazemrood). Developmental stages were identified in the control compartment based on Korpel's definitions at 2009. In each development stage, the initial, optimal and decay, one sample plot (100×100 m) were selected with four sides in the four geographical directions. Diameter at breast height of all tree species in each plot were measured. TreMs were identified based on the European Union's Integrate+ guide, including eight general forms (cavities, injuries and wounds, bark, deadwood, deformation /growth form, epiphytes, nests and other), 20 groups (woodpecker cavities, trunk and mould cavities, branch holes, dendrotelms and water-filled holes, insect galleries and bore holes, bark loss / exposed sapwood, exposed heartwood / trunk and crown breakage, cracks and scars, bark pockets, bark structure, dead branches and limbs / crown deadwood, root buttress cavities, witches broom, cankers and burrs, fruiting bodies fungi, myxomycetes, epiphytic crypto- and phanerogams, nests, sap and resin run and microsoil) and 64 subgroups, in the three sample plots.Results: In the initial, optimal and decay developmental stages, 40.6, 6.2 and 16.8% of trees lacked any microhabitats, respectively. The highest number of microhabitats was observed in the initial stage (13) on a beech tree with a diameter at breast height (d.b.h.) of 98 cm, in the optimal stage (9 microhabitats) on a Cappadocian maple tree with a d.b.h. of 43 cm, and in the decay stage (10 microhabitats) on a hornbeam tree with a d.b.h. of 56 cm. Of the 20 microhabitat groups studied, no nests were seen in any of the developmental stages. Most microhabitats showed the highest abundance with a slight difference in the optimal stage, except the dendrotelms. The trend of changes in the frequency of other TreMs was approximately similar in all development stages, except the dendrotelms. Although the frequency of epiphytes on tree trunks showed a similar trend in all three development stages, the frequency in the initial stage was significant compared to the other two stages. Except for the dendrotelms, other microhabitats showed the highest abundance with a slight difference in the medium diameter class of the optimal stage, the medium diameter class of the decay stage, and the small diameter class of the optimal stage, respectively. The highest number of dendrotelms was counted in the large (32), small (23) and very large diameter (16) classes of the initial stage, respectively. Interestingly, the greater abundance of insect galleries and bore holes was observed in the small diameter class of the decay stage (9) compared to other diameter classes in other stages. On average, 16.03 % (43.9 trees) of trees per hectare belonged to cavities, 11.2 % (5.5 trees) to injuries and wounds, 8.03 % (22.3 trees) to barkof tree-related microhabitats, 3.02 % (8.7 trees) to dead branches and limbs / crown deadwood, 19.29 % (52.7 trees) to deformation /growth form, 12.72 % (33 trees) to epiphytes, and 24.2 % (3.3 trees) to other microhabitats (sap and resin run and microsoil). On average, the frequency of trees with 5 or more microhabitats in the three development stages was 18.6%. On average, 1.2 microhabitats were identified per tree in the all development stages. The abundance of TreMs varied by tree species. Conclusion: The rate of formation of tree microhabitats varies greatly among different tree species, locations, and diameters of trees, as well as the type of forest management. Although the frequency of tree microhabitats increased with increasing diameter at breast height, some microhabitat groups showed high rates in small diameter trees. Therefore, tree conservation for biodiversity should concern trees of all sizes. For this purpose, in addition to large trees that host more than 5 microhabitats, protection of small diameter trees with specific microhabitats should also be considered. Therefore, in order to protect biodiversity, it is necessary to value not only forest stands and trees that have a more microhabitats, but also trees that have a high probability of forming microhabitats in the future due to the species or local environmental conditions. In this regard, adding quantitative microhabitat formation models to forest stand dynamics simulators is essential to better consider biodiversity conservation in forest management. https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121929.html Background and objectives: The green oak leaf roller, Tortrix viridana L., is one of the most destructive pests of oak forests. By feeding on developing buds and young foliage, it disrupts photosynthesis, reduces tree growth, causes premature leaf fall, and ultimately leads to the gradual decline of forest stands. In the Zagros forests an ecosystem of exceptional environmental, economic, and historical value recurrent infestations of this pest pose a serious threat to ecosystem sustainability. Due to the limitations associated with chemical insecticides, including environmental hazards, resistance development, and negative impacts on non-target organisms, the application of biological agents and plant-based pesticides within an integrated pest management (IPM) framework has gained increasing attention as a sustainable approach.Among various biological control agents, entomopathogenic fungi have gained a prominent position due to their active infection process, broad host range, and ability to function under diverse environmental conditions. Lecanicillium lecanii is one of the well-known entomopathogenic fungi, capable of penetrating directly through the insect cuticle, proliferating in the hemolymph, and ultimately killing the host. Additionally, it can reduce feeding and reproductive capacity of insect pests.On the other hand, botanical insecticides such as Bino2 derived from the roots of Sophora flavescens and rich in active alkaloids (e.g., matrine and sophocarpine) exhibit insecticidal, antifeedant, neurodisruptive, and endocrine-disrupting effects, while offering improved environmental safety compared to conventional chemical pesticides. Combining these biological and botanical control agents may enhance efficacy through synergistic interactions, reduce reliance on synthetic chemicals, and promote long-term sustainability in pest management strategies. Therefore, assessing the compatibility and sublethal impacts of these agents on pest population parameters is an essential prerequisite for developing effective IPM programs.Methodology: This study aimed to evaluate the compatibility of L. lecanii isolate 229 with Bino2, as well as to investigate the lethal and sublethal effects of each agent alone and in combination against larvae of T. viridana under laboratory conditions. Eggs of the pest were collected from the Pardanan forests of Piranshahr, and third- and fourth-instar larvae were reared under controlled conditions. Bioassays were performed using fungal concentrations ranging from 10⁴ to 10⁸ conidia mL⁻¹, and larval mortality was recorded nine days after treatment. Similarly, Bino2 was tested at graded concentrations based on its recommended field dose, with mortality recorded 24 and 48 hours after treatment. Fungal compatibility was evaluated by measuring conidial germination in media amended with half, equal to, and double the recommended Bino2 dose. Sublethal effects were assessed by treating larvae with LC₂₅ concentrations of each agent alone and combined LC₁₂.₅ + LC₁₂.₅ treatments. Life table parameters including survival, developmental duration, adult longevity, fecundity, and key population growth indices such as intrinsic rate of increase (r), net reproductive rate (R₀), mean generation time (T), and finite rate of increase (λ) were calculated using the two-sex life table method.Results: Results demonstrated a clear concentration-dependent increase in larval mortality for both agents. The estimated LC₅₀ values of L. lecanii isolate 229 for third- and fourth-instar larvae were 2.01 × 10⁵ and 7.78 × 10⁵ conidia mL⁻¹, respectively. The LC₅₀ values of Bino2 after 48 hours were estimated at 275.50 and 308.09 µL L⁻¹ for third and fourth instars, respectively. Conidial germination exceeded 92% at half the recommended Bino2 dose, indicating no significant inhibition; however, stronger inhibition occurred at the recommended dose, and complete suppression was observed at double the recommended dose, suggesting acceptable compatibility only at lower concentrations.Sublethal evaluations revealed that LC₂₅ of each agent and the LC₁₂.₅ + LC₁₂.₅ mixture significantly affected the biological performance of the pest. All treatments extended immature developmental duration and reduced adult longevity compared with the control. Reproductive capacity and population growth indices were markedly reduced, with the mixture treatment producing the greatest decrease in intrinsic rate of increase (r) and net reproductive rate (R₀), indicating synergistic suppression of pest population development. Additionally, a significant increase in mean generation time (T) indicated delayed population turnover and slower growth in future generations.Conclusion: Overall, the findings confirm that L. lecanii 229 and the botanical insecticide Bino2 both possess promising potential for controlling T. viridana, and their combined use at appropriate sublethal levels can enhance efficacy while reducing the required dosage. Given the substantial reductions in pest population growth observed through combined treatments, this strategy may serve as an environmentally sound component of IPM programs targeting the green oak leaf roller. Based on the encouraging laboratory results, field studies are recommended to verify performance and persistence under natural forest conditions. https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121930.html مقدمه و هدف: شدت خشکسالی و افزایش گردوغبار در ایران طی دو دهه‌ی اخیر روندی فزاینده داشته و استان‌های غربی و جنوب‌غربی بیشترین آسیب‌پذیری را تجربه کرده‌اند. جنگل‌های زاگرس، به عنوان یکی از حساس‌ترین اکوسیستم‌های کشور، به ویژه در برابر تهدیداتی نظیر طوفان‌های گردوغبار و خشکسالی‌های پی‌درپی، در معرض خطرات جدی قرار دارند. تنش‌های محیطی مانند خشکی و آلودگی گردوغبار می‌توانند به طور همزمان موجب کاهش رشد و زوال درختان شوند و تعادل اکوسیستم را به خطر اندازند.بنه (Pistacia atlantica Desf.) یکی از گونه‌های ارزشمند و مهم درختی جنگل‌های خارج از شمال ایران است که در مناطق متنوعی از جمله ارسباران، زاگرس، منطقه ایرانو-تورانی و دامنه‌های خلیج فارس و عمان پراکندگی دارد. این گونه به دلیل ویژگی‌های اکولوژیکی و اقتصادی خاص خود، نقش بسیار مهمی در حفظ تعادل اکوسیستم‌های خشک و نیمه‌خشک ایفا می‌کند. بر این اساس، مطالعه حاضر با هدف بررسی تأثیر همزمان تنش‌های خشکی و گردوغبار بر فعالیت آنزیم‌های آنتی‌اکسیدانی در نهال‌های بنه طراحی و اجرا شد تا واکنش‌های زیستی و سازگاری این گونه تحت شرایط استرس محیطی بهتر شناخته شده و راهکارهای مدیریتی مؤثری برای مقابله با این تنش‌ها ارائه گردد.مواد و روش:این پژوهش در بازه زمانی اسفندماه ۱۴۰۱ تا آذرماه ۱۴۰۲ در گلخانه دانشکده کشاورزی و منابع طبیعی دانشگاه لرستان انجام شد. آزمایش به صورت طرح اسپلیت پلات و در قالب طرح بلوک تصادفی با ۳۸۴ نهال بنه اجرا گردید. نهال‌ها تحت تنش خشکی در سه سطح شامل ۱۰۰٪ (بدون تنش)، ۷۵٪ و ۵۰٪ ظرفیت زراعی و همچنین تنش گردوغبار در چهار سطح صفر، ۳۵۰، ۷۵۰ و ۱۵۰۰ میکروگرم بر مترمکعب قرار گرفتند. اتاقک‌های رشد با پوشش پلاستیکی و ابعاد مشخص در داخل گلخانه احداث و گلدان‌ها در داخل این اتاقک‌ها قرار گرفتند. خاک مورد استفاده برای گلدان‌ها ترکیبی برابر از خاک زراعی، ماسه و کود دامی بود که مشابه خاک نهالستان جنگلی تهیه شده بود. در پایان دوره آزمایش، نمونه‌برداری از برگ‌های نهال انجام شد و فعالیت آنزیم‌های کاتالاز (CAT)، پراکسیداز (POD)، سوپراکسید دیسموتاز (SOD) و آسکوربات پراکسیداز (APX) در آزمایشگاه اندازه‌گیری گردید.یافته هانتایج تحلیل آماری نشان داد که تأثیر تنش‌های خشکی و گردوغبار بر فعالیت آنزیم‌های مذکور در سطح اطمینان ۹۹٪ معنی‌دار بوده است. هرچند اثر متقابل این دو تنش تنها در مورد آنزیم آسکوربات پراکسیداز معنی‌دار نبود، که نشان‌دهنده تأثیر مستقل هر تنش بر فعالیت این آنزیم است. آنزیم کاتالاز با افزایش شدت تنش، روند افزایشی قابل توجهی نشان داد. در شرایط تنش خشکی با سطح آبیاری ۵۰ درصد ظرفیت زراعی، فعالیت آنزیم‌های آسکوربات پراکسیداز و سوپراکسید دیسموتاز در پاسخ به افزایش غلظت گردوغبار ابتدا کاهش مختصری را در غلظت ۳۵۰ میکروگرم بر مترمکعب نشان دادند. این کاهش اولیه احتمالاً ناشی از آسیب موقتی به سیستم آنتی‌اکسیدانی گیاه یا مهار عملکرد آنزیم در اثر فشار استرس اکسیداتیو بوده است که منجر به کاهش موقت کارایی آنزیم می‌شود با افزایش بیشتر غلظت گردوغبار به سطوح ۷۵۰ و ۱۵۰۰ میکروگرم بر مترمکعب، فعالیت SOD به طور قابل توجهی افزایش یافت که نشان‌دهنده فعال‌سازی مکانیزم‌های جبرانی و تقویت پاسخ آنتی‌اکسیدانی در گیاه برای مقابله با آسیب ناشی از گونه‌های فعال اکسیژن (ROS) است. هرچند فعالیت آنزیم پراکسیداز (POD) تحت تأثیر تنش‌های خشکی و گردوغبار در سطح آماری معنی‌دار قرار گرفت، اما روند تغییرات آن در پاسخ به افزایش شدت تنش، الگوی مشخص افزایشی یا کاهشی نداشت.نتیجه گیری کلیمطالعه حاضر به روشنی نشان داد که نهال بنه با افزایش معنی‌دار فعالیت آنزیم‌های آنتی‌اکسیدانی کاتالاز، پراکسیداز و سوپراکسید دیسموتاز، پاسخ حفاظتی قوی و سازگارانه‌ای به تنش ترکیبی خشکی و گرد و غبار ارائه می‌دهد. افزایش فعالیت آنزیم سوپراکسید دیسموتاز به عنوان اولین خط دفاعی در برابر گونه‌های فعال اکسیژن نقش کلیدی در حفظ سلامت سلولی و بهبود عملکرد گیاه ایفا می‌کند. این یافته‌ها نشان‌دهنده سازگاری طبیعی و مقاومت نهال بنه در برابر شرایط نامساعد اقلیمی و آلودگی‌های محیطی است. با این وجود تحت تنش های بالای رطوبتی و ریزگرد عملکردهای فیزیولوژیکی گیاه به نحوی تحت تاثیر قرار می گیرد که امکان ادامه رشد مناسب سلب می شود و شرایط برای خشک شدن نهال فراهم می گردد.با توجه به نقش مهم ریزگردها در فعالیت های فیزیولوژیکی بنه و لزوم کاهش اثرات آن توصیه می‌شود احیای تالاب‌ها از طریق تأمین حق‌آبه و بهره‌گیری از فناوری‌های نوین، از جمله کاشت گونه‌های گیاهی مقاوم در بسترهای خشک تالاب‌ها، انجام شود. علاوه بر این، همکاری‌های منطقه‌ای با کشورهای همسایه برای مهار کانون‌های تولید گردوغبار و مدیریت بهینه منابع آب نیز ضروری است. اجرای این اقدامات می‌تواند نقش مؤثری در کاهش انتشار ریزگردها و بهبود کیفیت هوا در مناطق آسیب‌دیده ایفا کند. https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121932.html The forest road network in Golestan province is often gravel or dirt. The main problem of dirt roads, especially in the summer season, is the generation of dust due to vehicle traffic, which causes discomfort and annoyance to tourists, reduces the visibility of vehicles behind, and consequently reduces traffic safety. The aim of the present study is to investigate the effect of gravel cover characteristics on dust control of Arab-Dagh forest roads in Golestan province. For this purpose, a portable wind tunnel device with a contact surface measuring 60 × 38 cm was used. The device was transported to the desired area by passenger car and started up with the help of a mobile electric motor. Parts of the road that were uniform in terms of longitudinal slope, curvature, width of passage and other technical aspects were randomly selected and then gravel covering in the dimensions of small rubble (larger than 3 cm), almonds (1.5-3 cm) and gravel (smaller than 1.5 cm) with a surface coverage of 0 or control, 25, 50 and 75 percent of the thickness of the gravel was sprayed separately to the size of the contact surface of the wind tunnel. In the next stage, the compaction operation was carried out using a non-mechanized (manual) smooth cylindrical roller. In the next stage, by deploying and operating the device on the sample parts, the road surface was exposed to winds with speeds of 2 and 4 meters per second. These speeds were derived from the wind speed created by the fast traffic of cars on the road. The duration of the wind effect on all parts was considered the same and equal to 2 minutes. Then, the collected dust was weighed inside the plastic silicones with an accuracy of 0.1 mm. The experiments were carried out as a factorial in a randomized complete block design. The results showed that the highest amount of dust reduction was achieved in the small gravel treatment with 75% coverage. In this treatment, 81 and 71% reduction in the amount of dust from the plots located in the wind tunnel was reported at wind speeds of 2 and 4 m/s, respectively. In the almond gravel treatment with 75% coverage and at wind speeds of 2 and 4 m/s, the amount of dust was reduced by 44% and 50%, respectively. In the case of the gravel treatment with 75% coverage, the amount of dust reduction was 44% at both wind speeds. In all gravel treatments, the highest amount of dust from the plots located in the wind tunnel was recorded at 25% coverage. Also, with increasing percentage of coverage of the gravel treatments, the amount of dust decreased. All three gravel treatments were able to significantly reduce the amount of dust generated by the wind tunnel plots compared to the control treatment. However, the most effective treatment was the small gravel treatment. Thus, the use of small gravel with coverage of 75% can be suggested as the most suitable type of gravel cover for the protection of forest roads in the Arab-Dagh region. https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121936.html Background and objectives: Non-wood forest products constitute an integral component of forest ecosystems and are closely associated with the socioeconomic conditions of forest-dependent communities. In the Zagros region, these products have long contributed to household income and subsistence. Wild pear (Pyrus syriaca Boiss), as a native species, holds high economic, nutritional, and medicinal value. The present study examines the key ecological determinants governing the distribution and fruit yield of wild pear, with the aim of identifying suitable habitats for its establishment and expansion in degraded or sparsely forested landscapes. Owing to the limited number of studies conducted on this species, this research provides valuable insights for habitat suitability assessment and sustainable resource management.   Methodology: To study the wild pear (Pyrus syriaca Boiss.), five natural habitats were selected in Marmisho, Darreh-Khan, Perdanan, Mirabad, and Aslanik, located in West Azerbaijan Province, Iran. Within each selected habitat, forest stands of 2 hectares were delineated and subjected to a full inventory.  Climatic data, including mean annual precipitation, mean annual temperature, and maximum temperature of the warmest month, were obtained from the nearest meteorological stations. Quantitative tree characteristics such as diameter at breast height (DBH), total height, crown cover area, number of sprouts, tree origin, health status, and crown symmetry were recorded through 100% enumeration within each 2-hectare plot. For soil analysis, three composite soil samples (collected from the beginning, middle, and end of each stand) were taken from a depth of 0–30 cm and transferred to the soil laboratory for analysis. Soil texture was determined using the Bouyoucos hydrometer method; soil pH was measured potentiometrically; organic carbon content was determined using the Walkley–Black method; total nitrogen by the Kjeldahl method; and available potassium by ammonium acetate extraction followed by flame photometry. Fruit production was estimated by randomly selecting 20 individual wild pear trees along transects within each habitat. Subsequently, one tree was designated as a sampling unit for fruit yield estimation for every three selected trees. The total number of fruits per sampled tree was determined through visual enumeration, while mean fruit weight was calculated by weighing 30 randomly collected fruits. Fruit yield per tree was then estimated based on the product of fruit number and mean fruit weight. In each stand, 20 wild pear trees were randomly selected to estimate fruit yield. The number of fruits per tree was visually counted, and the average fruit weight was determined from 30 randomly sampled fruits. Based on these measurements, the total fruit production per tree was calculated. To analyze the relationship between DBH, total height, and crown cover, regression analysis was applied. Differences in quantitative traits and fruit yield across sites were assessed using the non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis test. In addition, principal component analysis (PCA) was employed to identify the most important soil factors influencing fruit production. For statistical analysis, data derived from the investigated stands and soil samples were compiled and analyzed using SPSS software. Prior to analysis, quantitative variables were examined for normality using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. Following confirmation of normality, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed, and Duncan’s multiple range test was applied to compare and classify the mean values of the measured variables across the studied habitats. Regression analyses were conducted to assess the relationships among diameter at breast height (DBH), total tree height, and crown area. Qualitative variables were analyzed using the non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis test. Furthermore, principal component analysis (PCA) was employed to identify the most influential soil-related factors affecting fruit production. Results: Among the studied sites, the highest mean diameter at breast height (DBH) was recorded in Mirabad (21.8 cm), while the lowest value was observed in Pardanan (10.78 cm). The maximum DBH was measured in Mirabad (45 cm) and the minimum in Aslanik (5.7 cm). In terms of tree height, the highest mean was obtained in Mirabad (22.6 m), whereas the lowest was found in Aslanik (3.49 m). The tallest tree was recorded in Darreh-Khan (14.6 m), and the shortest in Aslanik and Marmisho (1.7 m). Regarding crown cover, Mirabad exhibited the highest mean value (76.5 m²) and Aslanik the lowest (3.77 m²). The maximum crown cover was recorded in both Darre-Khan and Mirabad (31 m²), while the minimum was found in Darreh-Khan (0.07 m²) (Table 2). Overall, the results indicated that there were significant differences among the sites in DBH, total height, and mean crown diameter. The average fruit yield per tree was calculated as 86.4 kg in Mirabad, 63.5 kg in Darre-Khan, 46.7 kg in Pardanan, 51.7 kg in Marmisho, and 9.33 kg in Aslanik. The highest fruit production was obtained in Mirabad, whereas the lowest yield was recorded in Aslanik. Conclusion: Based on the results obtained from the five studied regions, wild pear trees exhibited a high level of adaptability to a wide range of physiographic conditions, including elevation and slope. The species was distributed across slopes ranging from 0 to 45% and elevations between 1,300 and 1,760 m above sea level, occurring under various aspects, including northern, southern, and eastern exposures. In terms of soil conditions, wild pear demonstrated good adaptability to sites with diverse soil physicochemical properties. In areas with higher potassium content (Dareh-Khan and Marmisho regions), superior performance was observed in terms of fruit size and mean fruit yield per tree. With respect to climatic adaptability, this species was well adapted to semi-humid to humid climatic conditions. Furthermore, the evaluated growth characteristics, including diameter at breast height (DBH), tree height, crown area, and sprout grouping, indicated favorable growth conditions across the studied regions. https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121937.html Background and Objective: Habitats are fundamental to the existence of plant life, and their preservation is crucial for ensuring sustainable development for the future. Habitat assessment models enable ecologists to gain a deeper understanding of the ecological requirements of various species and the limiting factors that constrain their populations. They also facilitate the prediction and design of conservation programs and the assessment of the effects of environmental factors, such as climate change. Furthermore, habitat assessment models allow researchers to assess the potential impacts of various environmental factors, such as climate change, on species and ecosystems. Foetid juniper (Juniperus foetidissima) habitats in the Arasbaran region face threats such as climate change, which impacts their development and reproduction. Assessing the influence of climate factors on their distribution is vital for effective conservation, long-term survival, and resilience.Methodology: This study used the MaxEnt model with 19 bioclimatic variables and elevation data from the Worldclim database, available as a raster file, to predict the potential distribution of the species in the Arasbaran region under climatic conditions. Key environmental variables affecting species distribution were identified, and model performance was evaluated using the receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC) and AUC (The area under the curve). The Jackknife test assessed the relative importance of environmental variables and their individual contributions. Analyses were performed in DIVA GIS and MaxEnt software environments.Results: The model accurately predicted species presence and absence at a high accuracy level (AUC = 0.994). Jackknife test that revealed the relative importance of environmental variables in the MaxEnt model; The most influential bioclimatic variables were: mean temperature of driest quarter (BIO 9, 36 percent contribution, optimal value 25-30 °C) and precipitation of coldest quarter (BIO 19, 28.7 percent contribution, amount < 100 mm) respectively. These environmental variables were the most contribute to the model and had the greatest influence on the distribution of this species within its habitat.Conclusion: This study indicates that climate determines the geographical range of Foetid juniper in the Arasbaran region. The species is sensitive to temperature and precipitation fluctuations; decreased mean temperature of the driest quarter and increased precipitation of the coldest quarter both reduce its distribution probability. Moisture availability is thus crucial for survival and depends on the ecological needs of the species. Similarly, optimal distribution depends on dry season temperature range, with temperatures lower or higher than the threshold decreasing distribution probability due to resource limitations affecting tree growth in mountainous areas. This study suggests that future climate change, will impact the habitat suitability and spatial distribution of this species. In conclusion, climate change will change the extent of its distribution. Addressing the impacts of climate change on species distribution is therefore crucial. Effective conservation strategies, alongside habitat conservation efforts such as soil and regeneration studies, are essential to preserve species and ecosystem balance in the face of inevitable climate change. https://jfrd.urmia.ac.ir/article_121954.html Background and Objectives: Forest fire is one of the most significant natural–human phenomena that imposes wide-ranging environmental, economic, and social impacts. Over recent decades, the frequency and intensity of wildfires have increased due to climate change, rising temperatures, declining humidity, land-use changes, and expanding human activities. The northern forests of Iran, particularly the Talesh forests as part of the Hyrcanian ecosystem, despite their humid climatic conditions, are increasingly exposed to fire risks as a result of climatic fluctuations and anthropogenic pressures. Owing to their diverse topography, variable slopes, altitudinal gradients, and microclimatic variations, these forests represent an ideal setting to investigate the influence of physiographic and climatic factors on the spatial pattern of fire occurrence. Therefore, the present study aimed to identify and analyze the physiographic and climatic variables affecting the occurrence and spatial distribution of forest fires in the Talesh region and to develop a spatial–statistical framework to support preventive fire management. To achieve this, Frequency Ratio (FR) and Weights of Evidence (WOE) models were employed in a Geographic Information System (GIS) environment to assess the role of slope, aspect, elevation, temperature, and precipitation in shaping the spatial dynamics of wildfires. Methodology:The study area is located in Talesh County, Gilan Province, within a mountainous landscape characterized by a humid to semi-humid climate, between latitudes 37°80′N and longitudes 48°90′E. Spatial datasets, including the Digital Elevation Model (DEM), slope and aspect layers, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) derived from Landsat imagery, and vector data of roads, rivers, and settlements, were collected and processed. Climatic parameters such as annual precipitation, temperature, and wind speed were obtained from local meteorological stations and the WorldClim global database. All datasets were converted to the same coordinate system (UTM) and resampled to a 30-meter spatial resolution for accurate spatial analysis. Physiographic and climatic variables were classified into meaningful categories using the Natural Breaks (Jenks) method. The FR model was applied to calculate the ratio between the percentage of fire occurrences and the corresponding class area, where values greater than 1 indicate a positive effect and values below 1 a negative effect. The WOE model was used to compute the logarithmic relationship between fire occurrence probability and background probability for each class; positive WOE values indicate a positive correlation, and negative values a negative effect. To correct small-sample bias, an adjustment term (ε = 10⁻⁶) was applied. Subsequently, FR and WOE values were extracted for slope, elevation, aspect, temperature, precipitation, and wind speed. The correlation matrix and Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) were computed to identify and eliminate multicollinearity. Finally, all weights were integrated in the GIS environment to produce fire susceptibility maps, enabling the identification of high-risk zones. Results:The results indicated that the spatial distribution of forest fires in Talesh is governed by a complex interplay between physiographic and climatic variables. Slope was identified as the most influential factor, with the highest fire frequency occurring on moderate to steep slopes (8–20 degrees). These slopes are more prone to fires due to stronger natural ventilation, higher fuel accumulation, and restricted accessibility for suppression. Gentle slopes (<5°) and very steep slopes (>25°) had FR values less than 1, reflecting their lower susceptibility. Regarding elevation, the mid-altitudinal range (1000–2000 m a.s.l.) showed the highest fire frequency, corresponding to the dense Hyrcanian forests with moderate temperature and abundant dry fuels. Lower elevations (<500 m) exhibited less fire due to land-use change, while higher elevations (>2000 m) were less prone to fire because of increased humidity and lower temperatures. The temperature variable revealed that classes between 15°C and 21°C exhibited the strongest correlation with fire occurrence, forming the so-called “climatic fire window,” where surface fuels reach optimal combustibility. Lower (<15°C) and higher (>21°C) temperatures reduced fire probability due to excessive moisture or fuel limitation. The precipitation factor showed a dual effect: the highest fire risk occurred in the 1000–1200 mm range (FR>1 and positive WOE), where vegetation growth is abundant but becomes highly flammable during dry seasons. Conversely, areas with rainfall below 800 mm or above 1200 mm demonstrated lower fire risk due to limited vegetation or excessive humidity. Analysis of wind speed indicated that values between 8.5–17 m/s had the greatest impact on fire spread, while extremely weak or strong winds suppressed fire propagation. Spatial modeling results revealed that southern and southwestern slopes, especially at mid-elevations and with moderate-to-steep slopes, experienced the highest density of fire points, thus identified as critical fire-prone zones. The strong agreement between FR and WOE results confirmed the consistency and reliability of the combined modeling approach. Conclusion: The spatial assessment of wildfires in the Talesh forests demonstrated that fire occurrence is not a random event but rather the outcome of intricate interactions among physiographic and climatic variables. Moderate-to-steep slopes, mid-altitudinal ranges, moderate temperatures, and intermediate rainfall constitute the ecological conditions most conducive to wildfire occurrence. The integrated use of FR and WOE models proved effective for identifying high-risk areas and quantifying the contribution of each variable to fire susceptibility. From a management perspective, the recognition of such critical zones provides a foundation for developing fire susceptibility maps and prioritizing preventive measures. It is recommended that preventive strategies including continuous remote-sensing monitoring, community training, establishment of firebreaks, and development of climate-based early warning systems be implemented in these high-risk regions. Furthermore, integrating FR and WOE models with advanced machine-learning algorithms such as Random Forest and XGBoost can enhance prediction accuracy in future studies. Overall, the present research not only provides an accurate spatial understanding of wildfire behavior in the Talesh forests but also proposes a localized model applicable to other northern Iranian forest ecosystems. The findings emphasize the importance of data-driven ecological management and informed decision-making for sustainable natural resource governance. Understanding the relationship between physiography and fire occurrence is essential not only for advancing scientific knowledge but also for ensuring the ecological and economic resilience of Iran’s forest landscapes.